ʻO nā kamaʻāina me ke kūlana haʻahaʻa o ka nohona waiwai (SES) e noho ana i nā hale noho kaiaulu i kākoʻo ʻia e ke aupuni a i ʻole nā keʻena kālā aupuni, ʻoi aku paha ka pilikia o nā pesticides i hoʻohana ʻia i loko o ka hale no ka mea ua hoʻohana ʻia nā pesticides ma muli o nā kīnā o ke ʻano, ka mālama pono ʻole ʻana, a me nā mea ʻē aʻe.
I ka makahiki 2017, ua ana ʻia he 28 mau pesticides particulate i loko o ka ea o loko i loko o 46 mau ʻāpana o ʻehiku mau hale noho kaiaulu haʻahaʻa ma Toronto, Kanada, me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā mea hoʻomaʻemaʻe ea lawe lima i hoʻohana ʻia no hoʻokahi pule. ʻO nā pesticides i kālailai ʻia he mau pesticides kuʻuna a hoʻohana ʻia i kēia manawa mai kēia mau papa: organochlorines, organophosphorus compounds, pyrethroids, a me strobilurins.
Ua ʻike ʻia ma ka liʻiliʻi hoʻokahi pesticide ma 89% o nā ʻāpana, me nā helu ʻike (DR) no nā pesticides pākahi e hiki ana i ka 50%, me nā organochlorines kuʻuna a me nā pesticides i hoʻohana ʻia i kēia manawa. ʻO nā pyrethroids i hoʻohana ʻia i kēia manawa ka mea kiʻekiʻe loa o DFs a me nā ʻano, me ka pyrethroid I ka nui o ka particulate phase concentration ma 32,000 pg/m3. ʻO Heptachlor, i kaupalena ʻia ma Kanada i ka makahiki 1985, ʻo ia ka nui o ka ea holoʻokoʻa i manaʻo ʻia (particulate matter me ka gas phase) ma 443,000 pg/m3. ʻOi aku ka nui o ka heptachlor, lindane, endosulfan I, chlorothalonil, allethrin, a me permethrin (koe wale nō ma hoʻokahi noiʻi) ma mua o nā mea i ana ʻia ma nā hale haʻahaʻa loa i hōʻike ʻia ma kahi ʻē. Ma waho aʻe o ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā pesticides no ka kaohi ʻana i nā pest a me kā lākou hoʻohana ʻana i nā mea kūkulu hale a me nā pena, ua pili nui ka puhipaka me ka nui o nā pesticides ʻelima i hoʻohana ʻia ma nā mea kanu paka. ʻO ka hoʻolaha ʻana o nā pesticides DF kiʻekiʻe i loko o nā hale pākahi e hōʻike ana ʻo nā kumu nui o nā pesticides i ʻike ʻia he mau papahana kaohi pest i mālama ʻia e nā luna hale a/a i ʻole ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā pesticide e ka poʻe noho.
He pono koʻikoʻi ka hale noho kaiāulu no ka poʻe haʻahaʻa loa, akā ua maʻalahi kēia mau hale i nā mea ʻino a hilinaʻi lākou i nā pesticides e mālama iā lākou. Ua ʻike mākou he 89% o nā ʻāpana 46 a pau i hoʻāʻo ʻia ua hōʻike ʻia i ka liʻiliʻi o hoʻokahi o 28 mau insecticides particulate-phase, me nā pyrethroids i hoʻohana ʻia i kēia manawa a me nā organochlorines i pāpā lōʻihi ʻia (e laʻa, DDT, heptachlor) me nā kiʻekiʻe kiʻekiʻe loa ma muli o ko lākou paʻa mau ʻana i loko. Ua ana ʻia hoʻi nā kiʻekiʻe o kekahi mau pesticides i hoʻopaʻa inoa ʻole ʻia no ka hoʻohana ʻana i loko, e like me nā strobilurins i hoʻohana ʻia ma nā mea kūkulu hale a me nā insecticides i hoʻopili ʻia i nā mea kanu paka. ʻO kēia mau hopena, ʻo ka ʻikepili mua Kanada ma ka hapa nui o nā pesticides i loko, e hōʻike ana ua hōʻike nui ʻia ka poʻe i ka nui o lākou.
Hoʻohana nui ʻia nā pesticides i ka hana ʻana i nā mea kanu mahiʻai e hōʻemi i ka pōʻino i hana ʻia e nā mea ʻino. I ka makahiki 2018, ma kahi o 72% o nā pesticides i kūʻai ʻia ma Kanada ua hoʻohana ʻia i ka mahiʻai, me 4.5% wale nō i hoʻohana ʻia i nā wahi noho.[1] No laila, ʻo ka hapa nui o nā haʻawina o ka nui o nā pesticides a me ka hōʻike ʻana ua kālele ʻia ma nā wahi mahiʻai.[2,3,4] Waiho kēia i nā hakahaka he nui e pili ana i nā ʻano pesticide a me nā pae i nā hale, kahi i hoʻohana nui ʻia ai nā pesticides no ka kaohi ʻana i nā mea ʻino. Ma nā wahi noho, hiki i kahi noi pesticide hoʻokahi i loko ke hopena i ka hoʻokuʻu ʻia ʻana o 15 mg o ka pesticide i ke kaiapuni.[5] Hoʻohana ʻia nā pesticides i loko o ka hale e kaohi i nā mea ʻino e like me nā cockroaches a me nā ʻuku moe. ʻO nā hoʻohana ʻē aʻe o nā pesticides e pili ana i ka kaohi ʻana i nā mea ʻino holoholona home a me kā lākou hoʻohana ʻana ma ke ʻano he fungicides ma nā lako a me nā huahana mea kūʻai (e like me nā kāpeti huluhulu, nā lole) a me nā mea kūkulu hale (e like me nā pena paia i loaʻa ka fungicide, drywall pale ʻōpala) [6,7,8,9]. Eia kekahi, ʻo nā hana a ka poʻe noho (e like me ka puhipaka i loko o ka hale) hiki ke hopena i ka hoʻokuʻu ʻia ʻana o nā pesticides i hoʻohana ʻia e ulu i ka paka i loko o nā wahi o loko [10]. ʻO kekahi kumu o ka hoʻokuʻu ʻia ʻana o nā pesticide i loko o nā wahi o loko, ʻo ia ko lākou lawe ʻia ʻana mai waho mai [11,12,13].
Ma waho aʻe o nā limahana mahiʻai a me ko lākou mau ʻohana, ua palupalu kekahi mau hui i ka hōʻike ʻia ʻana o nā pesticides. ʻOi aku ka pilikia o nā keiki i nā mea haumia o loko, me nā pesticides, ma mua o nā pākeke ma muli o ke kiʻekiʻe o ka hanu ʻana, ka ʻai ʻana i ka lepo, a me nā hana lima-a-waha e pili ana i ke kaumaha o ke kino [14, 15]. No ka laʻana, ua ʻike ʻo Trunnel et al. ua pili pono nā ʻano pyrethroid/pyrethrin (PYR) i loko o nā holoi papahele me nā ʻano metabolite PYR i loko o ka mimi o nā keiki [16]. ʻOi aku ka kiʻekiʻe o ka DF o nā metabolites pesticide PYR i hōʻike ʻia ma ka Canadian Health Measures Study (CHMS) i nā keiki 3-5 mau makahiki ma mua o nā hui ʻelemakule [17]. Ua manaʻo ʻia hoʻi nā wahine hāpai a me kā lākou mau fetuses he hui palupalu ma muli o ka pilikia o ka hōʻike ʻia ʻana o nā pesticide i ka wā ʻōpiopio. Ua hōʻike ʻo Wyatt et al. ua pili loa nā pesticides i loko o nā laʻana koko makuahine a me nā neonatal, e kūlike me ka hoʻoili ʻana o ka makuahine-fetal [18].
ʻO ka poʻe e noho ana ma nā hale noho haʻahaʻa a haʻahaʻa paha ka loaʻa kālā, ʻoi aku ka nui o ka pilikia o ka hōʻike ʻia ʻana i nā mea haumia o loko, me nā pesticides [19, 20, 21]. No ka laʻana, ma Kanada, ua hōʻike ʻia nā haʻawina e ʻoi aku ka nui o ka poʻe me ke kūlana socioeconomic haʻahaʻa (SES) i ka hōʻike ʻia ʻana i nā phthalates, nā halogenated flame retardants, nā organophosphorus plasticizers a me nā flame retardants, a me nā polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) ma mua o ka poʻe me ka SES kiʻekiʻe [22,23,24]. Pili kekahi o kēia mau ʻike i ka poʻe e noho ana ma nā "hale noho kaiaulu," a mākou e wehewehe nei he hale hoʻolimalima i kākoʻo ʻia e ke aupuni (a i ʻole nā keʻena i kālā ʻia e ke aupuni) nona nā kamaʻāina o ke kūlana socioeconomic haʻahaʻa [25]. ʻO nā hale noho kaiaulu ma nā hale noho multi-unit (MURBs) he mea maʻalahi i nā infestations pest, ma muli o ko lākou mau hemahema kūkulu (e like me nā māwae a me nā māwae i nā paia), ka nele o ka mālama pono / hoʻoponopono, ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe kūpono ʻole a me nā lawelawe hoʻolei ʻōpala, a me ka nui o ka lehulehu [20, 26]. ʻOiai ua loaʻa nā papahana hoʻokele pest i hoʻohui ʻia e hōʻemi i ka pono no nā papahana kaohi pest i ka hoʻokele hale a pēlā e hōʻemi ai i ka pilikia o ka hōʻike ʻia ʻana o ka pesticide, ʻoi aku hoʻi i nā hale multi-unit, hiki i nā pests ke pālahalaha ma loko o ka hale [21, 27, 28]. Hiki i ka laha ʻana o nā pest a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā pesticide pili ke hoʻopilikia maikaʻi ʻole i ka maikaʻi o ka ea o loko a hōʻike i nā mea noho i ka pilikia o ka hōʻike ʻia ʻana o ka pesticide, e alakaʻi ana i nā hopena maikaʻi ʻole i ke olakino [29]. Ua hōʻike ʻia kekahi mau noiʻi ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa he kiʻekiʻe aʻe nā pae hōʻike i nā pesticides i pāpā ʻia a hoʻohana ʻia i kēia manawa ma nā hale noho haʻahaʻa ma mua o nā hale noho kiʻekiʻe ma muli o ka maikaʻi ʻole o ka hale noho [11, 26, 30,31,32]. No ka mea, he kakaikahi nā koho a ka poʻe noho haʻahaʻa no ka haʻalele ʻana i ko lākou mau home, hiki iā lākou ke hoʻopilikia mau ʻia i nā pesticides i loko o ko lākou mau home.
I loko o nā hale, hiki i nā kamaʻāina ke hoʻopilikia ʻia i nā pesticides kiʻekiʻe no ka manawa lōʻihi no ka mea e mau ana nā koena pesticide ma muli o ka nele o ka lā, ka makū, a me nā ala hoʻohaʻahaʻa microbial [33,34,35]. Ua hōʻike ʻia ka pili ʻana o ka pesticide me nā hopena olakino maikaʻi ʻole e like me nā kīnā neurodevelopmental (ʻoi aku ka haʻahaʻa o ka IQ waha i nā keikikāne), a me nā maʻi kanesa koko, nā maʻi kanesa lolo (me nā maʻi kanesa kamaliʻi), nā hopena pili i ka hoʻopilikia endocrine, a me ka maʻi Alzheimer.
Ma ke ʻano he ʻaoʻao o ka Stockholm Convention, he mau kapu ko Kanada ma nā OCP ʻeiwa [42, 54]. ʻO ka loiloi hou ʻana i nā koi hoʻoponopono ma Kanada ua hopena i ka hoʻopau ʻia ʻana o ka aneane āpau o nā hoʻohana kūloko o OPP a me carbamate.[55] Hoʻopaʻa pū ka Pest Management Regulatory Agency of Canada (PMRA) i kekahi mau hoʻohana kūloko o PYR. No ka laʻana, ua hoʻopau ʻia ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka cypermethrin no nā mālama perimeter o loko a me nā hoʻolaha ma muli o kona hopena hiki i ke olakino kanaka, ʻoi aku hoʻi i nā keiki [56]. Hāʻawi ka Kiʻi 1 i kahi hōʻuluʻulu manaʻo o kēia mau kapu [55, 57, 58].
Hōʻike ka axis-Y i nā pesticides i ʻike ʻia (ma luna o ka palena ʻike o ke ʻano hana, Papa S6), a hōʻike ka axis-X i ka pae o ka nui o nā pesticides i ka lewa ma ka pae ʻāpana ma luna o ka palena ʻike. Hāʻawi ʻia nā kikoʻī o nā alapine ʻike a me nā nui kiʻekiʻe loa ma ka Papa S6.
ʻO kā mākou mau pahuhopu, ʻo ia ke ana i ka nui o ka ea o loko a me nā hōʻike ʻana (e laʻa, ka hanu ʻana) o nā pesticides i hoʻohana ʻia a me nā pesticides kahiko i nā ʻohana kūlana haʻahaʻa socioeconomic e noho ana ma nā hale noho kaiaulu ma Toronto, Kanada, a e nānā i kekahi o nā mea e pili ana i kēia mau hōʻike. ʻO ka pahuhopu o kēia pepa, ʻo ia ke hoʻopiha i ka hakahaka i ka ʻikepili e pili ana i nā hōʻike ʻana i nā pesticides o kēia manawa a me nā pesticides kahiko i nā home o nā heluna kanaka palupalu, ʻoiai ua palena loa ka ʻikepili pesticide o loko ma Kanada [6].
Ua nānā nā kānaka noiʻi i ka nui o nā pesticide ma nā hale noho kaiaulu ʻehiku MURB i kūkulu ʻia i nā makahiki 1970 ma ʻekolu mau wahi ma ke kūlanakauhale ʻo Toronto. Aia nā hale āpau ma ka liʻiliʻi he 65 km mai kekahi ʻāpana mahiʻai (koe naʻe nā ʻāpana pā hale hope). He hōʻike kēia mau hale i nā hale noho kaiaulu o Toronto. ʻO kā mākou noiʻi he hoʻonui ʻana o kahi noiʻi nui aʻe i nānā i nā pae particulate matter (PM) ma nā hale noho kaiaulu ma mua a ma hope o ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka ikehu [59,60,61]. No laila, ua kaupalena ʻia kā mākou hoʻolālā laʻana i ka hōʻiliʻili ʻana i ka PM ea.
No kēlā me kēia poloka, ua hoʻomohala ʻia nā hoʻololi e pili ana i ka mālama ʻana i ka wai a me ka ikehu (e laʻa me ke pani ʻana i nā ʻāpana ea, nā paila a me nā mea hana hoʻomehana) e hōʻemi i ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka ikehu, hoʻomaikaʻi i ka maikaʻi o ka ea o loko a hoʻonui i ka hōʻoluʻolu wela [62, 63]. Ua māhele ʻia nā hale noho e like me ke ʻano o ka noho ʻana: ka poʻe ʻelemakule, nā ʻohana a me nā poʻe hoʻokahi. Ua wehewehe ʻia nā hiʻohiʻona a me nā ʻano o nā hale ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe [24].
Ua kālailai ʻia he kanahākumamāono mau laʻana kānana ea i hōʻiliʻili ʻia mai 46 mau keʻena hale noho kaiaulu MURB i ka hoʻoilo 2017. Ua wehewehe kikoʻī ʻia ke ʻano o ke aʻo ʻana, ka hōʻiliʻili laʻana, a me nā kaʻina hana mālama e Wang et al. [60]. I ka pōkole, ua hoʻolako ʻia kēlā me kēia keʻena o ka mea komo me kahi mea hoʻomaʻemaʻe ea Amaircare XR-100 i hoʻolako ʻia me nā mea kānana ea particulate kiʻekiʻe 127 mm (ka mea i hoʻohana ʻia i nā kānana HEPA) no 1 pule. Ua hoʻomaʻemaʻe ʻia nā mea hoʻomaʻemaʻe ea lawe lima a pau me nā ʻūpī isopropyl ma mua a ma hope o ka hoʻohana ʻana e pale aku i ka haumia keʻa. Ua kau ʻia nā mea hoʻomaʻemaʻe ea lawe lima ma ka paia o ka lumi hoʻokipa he 30 cm mai ke kaupaku a/a i ʻole e like me ke kuhikuhi a ka poʻe noho e pale aku i ka pilikia i nā poʻe noho a hoʻēmi i ka hiki ke komo ʻole ʻia (e ʻike i ka ʻIke Hoʻohui SI1, Kiʻi S1). I ka wā o ka laʻana hebedoma, ʻo ke kahe waena he 39.2 m3/lā (e ʻike iā SI1 no nā kikoʻī o nā ʻano i hoʻohana ʻia e hoʻoholo ai i ke kahe). Ma mua o ka hoʻolaha ʻana o ka sampler i Ianuali a me Pepeluali 2015, ua hana ʻia kahi kipa mua ʻana mai ka puka a i ka puka a me ka nānā maka ʻana i nā ʻano o ka hale a me ke ʻano o ka poʻe noho (e like me ka puhipaka). Ua hana ʻia kahi noiʻi hahai ma hope o kēlā me kēia kipa mai 2015 a i 2017. Hāʻawi ʻia nā kikoʻī piha ma Touchie et al. [64] I ka pōkole, ʻo ka pahuhopu o ka noiʻi ʻana, ʻo ia ke loiloi i ke ʻano o ka poʻe noho a me nā loli hiki ke loli i nā ʻano o ka hale a me ke ʻano o ka poʻe noho e like me ka puhipaka, ka hana ʻana o ka puka a me ka puka makani, a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā uhi extractor a i ʻole nā peʻahi kīhini i ka wā e kuke ai. [59, 64] Ma hope o ka hoʻololi ʻana, ua kālailai ʻia nā kānana no 28 mau pesticides target (ua manaʻo ʻia ʻo endosulfan I a me II a me α- a me γ-chlordane he mau hui like ʻole, a ʻo p,p′-DDE he metabolite o p,p′-DDT, ʻaʻole he pesticide), me nā pesticides kahiko a me kēia wā (Papa S1).
Ua wehewehe kikoʻī ʻo Wang et al. [60] i ke kaʻina hana unuhi a me ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe. Ua māhele ʻia kēlā me kēia laʻana kānana i ka hapalua a ua hoʻohana ʻia kekahi hapalua no ka nānā ʻana i 28 mau pesticides (Papa S1). ʻO nā laʻana kānana a me nā blanks laboratory i loaʻa nā kānana fiber aniani, hoʻokahi no kēlā me kēia ʻelima laʻana no ka huina o ʻeiwa, i hoʻohui ʻia me ʻeono mau pani pesticide i kapa ʻia (Papa S2, Chromatographic Specialties Inc.) e kāohi no ka hoʻōla ʻana. Ua ana ʻia hoʻi nā ʻano pesticide target i loko o ʻelima mau blanks kahua. Ua sonicated ʻia kēlā me kēia laʻana kānana i ʻekolu manawa no 20 min me 10 mL o hexane:acetone:dichloromethane (2:1:1, v:v:v) (HPLC grade, Fisher Scientific). Ua hōʻuluʻulu ʻia nā supernatants mai nā unuhi ʻekolu a ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia i 1 mL i loko o kahi evaporator Zymark Turbovap ma lalo o ke kahe mau o ka nitrogen. Ua hoʻomaʻemaʻe ʻia ka ʻāpana me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā kolamu Florisil® SPE (Florisil® Superclean ENVI-Florisil SPE tubes, Supelco) a laila ua hoʻohui ʻia i 0.5 mL me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi Zymark Turbovap a hoʻoili ʻia i kahi vial GC amber. A laila ua hoʻohui ʻia ʻo Mirex (AccuStandard®) (100 ng, Table S2) ma ke ʻano he kūlana kūloko. Ua hana ʻia nā loiloi e ke kinoea chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MSD, Agilent 7890B GC a me Agilent 5977A MSD) ma nā ʻano hopena electron a me nā ʻano ionization kemika. Hāʻawi ʻia nā palena o ka mea hana ma SI4 a hāʻawi ʻia ka ʻike ion quantitative ma nā Papa S3 a me S4.
Ma mua o ka unuhi ʻana, ua hoʻohuihui ʻia nā mea pani pesticide i hōʻailona ʻia i loko o nā laʻana a me nā blanks (Papa S2) e nānā i ka hoʻōla ʻana i ka wā o ka nānā ʻana. ʻO ka hoʻōla ʻana o nā hui māka i loko o nā laʻana mai 62% a 83%; ua hoʻoponopono ʻia nā hopena āpau no nā kemika pākahi no ka hoʻōla ʻana. Ua hoʻoponopono ʻia nā ʻikepili blank me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā waiwai blank laboratory a me ke kahua no kēlā me kēia pesticide (ua helu ʻia nā waiwai ma ka Papa S5) e like me nā pae i wehewehe ʻia e Saini et al. [65]: i ka wā i emi ai ka nui o ka blank ma mua o 5% o ka nui o ka laʻana, ʻaʻohe hoʻoponopono blank i hana ʻia no nā kemika pākahi; i ka wā i 5-35% ai ka nui o ka blank, ua hoʻoponopono ʻia nā ʻikepili blank; inā ʻoi aku ka nui o ka blank ma mua o 35% o ka waiwai, ua hoʻolei ʻia nā ʻikepili. Ua wehewehe ʻia ka palena ʻike hana (MDL, Papa S6) ʻo ia ka awelika o ka nui o ka blank laboratory (n = 9) me ʻekolu manawa o ka ʻokoʻa maʻamau. Inā ʻaʻole i ʻike ʻia kahi hui i loko o ka blank, ua hoʻohana ʻia ka lakio signal-to-noise o ka hui i loko o ka hopena maʻamau haʻahaʻa loa (~10:1) e helu i ka palena ʻike mea hana. Ua ʻike ʻia nā ʻano like ʻole ma nā laʻana hoʻokolohua a me nā laʻana kahua
Hoʻololi ʻia ka nuipa kemika ma luna o ka kānana ea i ka nui o nā ʻāpana ea i hoʻohui ʻia me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka loiloi gravimetric, a hoʻololi ʻia ka nui o ke kahe o ke kānana a me ka pono o ke kānana i ka nui o nā ʻāpana ea i hoʻohui ʻia e like me ka hoʻohālikelike 1:
kahi ʻo M (g) ka nui o ka PM i hopu ʻia e ke kānana, ʻo f (pg/g) ka nui o ka mea haumia i loko o ka PM i hōʻiliʻili ʻia, ʻo η ka pono o ke kānana (manaʻo ʻia he 100% ma muli o ka mea kānana a me ka nui o ka ʻāpana [67]), ʻo Q (m3/h) ka nui o ke kahe ʻana o ka ea volumetric ma o ka mea hoʻomaʻemaʻe ea lawe lima, a ʻo t (h) ka manawa hoʻolaha. Ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia ke kaumaha o ke kānana ma mua a ma hope o ka hoʻolaha ʻana. Hāʻawi ʻia nā kikoʻī piha o nā ana a me nā helu kahe ea e Wang et al. [60].
ʻO ke ʻano laʻana i hoʻohana ʻia ma kēia pepa ua ana wale i ka nui o ka pae particulate. Ua kuhi mākou i nā nui like o nā pesticides i loko o ka pae kinoea me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka hoʻohālikelike Harner-Biedelman (Equation 2), me ka manaʻo he kaulike kemika ma waena o nā pae [68]. Ua loaʻa ka Equation 2 no nā mea particulate ma waho, akā ua hoʻohana ʻia hoʻi e kuhi i ka hoʻolaha ʻana o nā ʻāpana i ka lewa a me nā wahi o loko [69, 70].
kahi ʻo log Kp ka hoʻololi logarithmic o ka coefficient partition partition particle-gas i ka lewa, ʻo log Koa ka hoʻololi logarithmic o ka coefficient partition octanol/air, ʻo Koa (dimensionless), a ʻo \({fom}\) ka hapa o ka mea olaola i loko o ka mea particulate (dimensionless). Ua lawe ʻia ka waiwai fom he 0.4 [71, 72]. Ua lawe ʻia ka waiwai Koa mai OPERA 2.6 i loaʻa me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka dashboard monitoring chemical CompTox (US EPA, 2023) (Kiʻi S2), ʻoiai ʻo ia ka mea i loaʻa nā kuhi liʻiliʻi loa i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me nā ʻano kuhi ʻē aʻe [73]. Ua loaʻa pū mākou i nā waiwai hoʻokolohua o Koa a me Kowwin/HENRYWIN kuhi me ka hoʻohana ʻana iā EPISuite [74].
ʻOiai ʻo ka DF no nā pesticides i ʻike ʻia he ≤50%, nā waiwai
Hōʻike ka Kiʻi S3 a me nā Papa S6 a me S8 i nā waiwai Koa ma muli o OPERA, ka nui o ka particulate phase (kānana) o kēlā me kēia hui pesticide, a me ka helu ʻana o ke kinoea a me ka nui o nā nui. ʻO nā nui o ke kinoea a me ka huina nui o nā pesticides i ʻike ʻia no kēlā me kēia hui kemika (ʻo ia hoʻi, Σ8OCP, Σ3OPP, Σ8PYR, a me Σ3STR) i loaʻa me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā waiwai Koa hoʻokolohua a me nā helu mai EPISuite i hāʻawi ʻia ma nā Papa S7 a me S8, kēlā me kēia. Hōʻike mākou i nā nui o ka particulate phase i ana ʻia a hoʻohālikelike i ka nui o ka ea i helu ʻia ma aneʻi (me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā kuhi ma muli o OPERA) me nā nui o ka ea mai kahi helu palena o nā hōʻike ʻole mahiʻai o nā nui o ka pesticide airborne a mai kekahi mau haʻawina o nā ʻohana SES haʻahaʻa [26, 31, 76,77,78] (Papa S9). He mea nui e hoʻomaopopo he hoʻohālikelike kēia hoʻohālikelike ma muli o nā ʻokoʻa o nā ʻano laʻana a me nā makahiki aʻo. I ko mākou ʻike, ʻo ka ʻikepili i hōʻike ʻia ma aneʻi nā mea mua e ana i nā pesticides ʻē aʻe ma mua o nā organochlorines kuʻuna i ka ea o loko ma Kanada.
I ke kahua ʻāpana, ʻo ka nui loa o ka ʻike ʻia ʻana o Σ8OCP he 4400 pg/m3 (Papa S8). ʻO ka OCP me ka nui kiʻekiʻe loa he heptachlor (i kaupalena ʻia i ka makahiki 1985) me ka nui loa o 2600 pg/m3, a ukali ʻia e p,p′-DDT (i kaupalena ʻia i ka makahiki 1985) me ka nui loa o 1400 pg/m3 [57]. ʻO Chlorothalonil me ka nui loa o 1200 pg/m3 he pesticide antibacterial a me antifungal i hoʻohana ʻia i nā pena. ʻOiai ua hoʻōki ʻia kona hoʻopaʻa inoa ʻana no ka hoʻohana ʻana i loko i ka makahiki 2011, aia nō kona DF ma 50% [55]. ʻO nā waiwai DF kiʻekiʻe a me nā nui o nā OCP kuʻuna e hōʻike ana ua hoʻohana nui ʻia nā OCP i ka wā ma mua a ua mau lākou i nā wahi o loko [6].
Ua hōʻike ʻia nā haʻawina mua e pili pono ana ka makahiki o ke kūkulu ʻana me ka nui o nā OCP kahiko [6, 79]. Ma ke ʻano maʻamau, ua hoʻohana ʻia nā OCP no ka kaohi ʻana i nā mea ʻino i loko, ʻoiai ʻo lindane no ka mālama ʻana i nā ʻuku poʻo, kahi maʻi i ʻoi aku ka maʻamau i nā hale me ke kūlana socioeconomic haʻahaʻa ma mua o nā hale me ke kūlana socioeconomic kiʻekiʻe [80, 81]. ʻO ka nui kiʻekiʻe loa o ka lindane he 990 pg/m3.
No ka nui o nā mea particulate a me ke kinoea, ʻo ka heptachlor ka mea i loaʻa ka nui kiʻekiʻe loa, me ka nui kiʻekiʻe loa o 443,000 pg/m3. ʻO ka nui o nā ea Σ8OCP i manaʻo ʻia mai nā waiwai Koa ma nā pae ʻē aʻe ua helu ʻia ma ka Papa S8. ʻO ka nui o nā heptachlor, lindane, chlorothalonil, a me ka endosulfan I he 2 (chlorothalonil) a i 11 (endosulfan I) mau manawa kiʻekiʻe ma mua o nā mea i loaʻa i nā haʻawina ʻē aʻe o nā wahi noho kiʻekiʻe a me ka haʻahaʻa ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa a me Palani i ana ʻia he 30 mau makahiki i hala [77, 82,83,84].
ʻO ka nui o ka nui o ka particulate phase o nā OP ʻekolu (Σ3OPPs)—malathion, trichlorfon, a me diazinon—he 3,600 pg/m3. O kēia mau mea, ʻo ka malathion wale nō i kākau inoa ʻia no ka hoʻohana ʻana ma ka hale noho ma Kanada.[55] ʻO Trichlorfon ka nui o ka particulate phase ma ka māhele OPP, me ka nui o 3,600 pg/m3. Ma Kanada, ua hoʻohana ʻia ʻo trichlorfon ma ke ʻano he pesticide loea i nā huahana kaohi pest ʻē aʻe, e like me ka kaohi ʻana i nā nalo kū ʻole a me nā cockroaches.[55] Ua kākau inoa ʻia ʻo Malathion ma ke ʻano he rodenticide no ka hoʻohana ʻana ma ka hale noho, me ka nui o 2,800 pg/m3.
ʻO ka nui loa o ka nui o Σ3OPPs (kinoea + nā ʻāpana) i ka lewa he 77,000 pg/m3 (60,000–200,000 pg/m3 ma muli o ka waiwai Koa EPISuite). ʻOi aku ka haʻahaʻa o nā nui OPP ma ka lewa (DF 11–24%) ma mua o nā nui OCP (DF 0–50%), ʻo ia ka mea ma muli o ka nui o ke kūpaʻa o OCP [85].
ʻOi aku ke kiʻekiʻe o nā ʻano diazinon a me malathion i hōʻike ʻia ma ʻaneʻi ma mua o nā mea i ana ʻia ma kahi o 20 mau makahiki i hala aku nei ma nā ʻohana kūlana socioeconomic haʻahaʻa ma South Texas a me Boston (kahi i hōʻike ʻia ai ka diazinon wale nō) [26, 78]. ʻOi aku ka haʻahaʻa o nā ʻano diazinon a mākou i ana ai ma mua o nā mea i hōʻike ʻia ma nā haʻawina o nā ʻohana kūlana socioeconomic haʻahaʻa a me waena ma New York a me Northern California (ʻaʻole hiki iā mākou ke loaʻa nā hōʻike hou aku ma nā palapala) [76, 77].
ʻO nā PYR nā pesticides i hoʻohana nui ʻia no ka kaohi ʻana i nā ʻuku moe ma nā ʻāina he nui, akā he kakaikahi nā haʻawina i ana i ko lākou nui i ka ea o loko [86, 87]. ʻO kēia ka manawa mua i hōʻike ʻia ai ka ʻikepili nui o ka PYR o loko ma Kanada.
I ke kahua ʻāpana, ʻo ka waiwai kiʻekiʻe loa o \(\,{\sum }_{8}{PYRs}\) he 36,000 pg/m3. ʻO Pyrethrin I ka mea i ʻike pinepine ʻia (DF% = 48), me ka waiwai kiʻekiʻe loa o 32,000 pg/m3 ma waena o nā pesticides āpau. Ua hoʻopaʻa inoa ʻia ʻo Pyrethroid I ma Kanada no ka kaohi ʻana i nā ʻuku moe, nā ʻiole, nā pepeke lele, a me nā mea ʻino holoholona [55, 88]. Eia kekahi, ua manaʻo ʻia ʻo pyrethrin I he lāʻau lapaʻau mua no ka pediculosis ma Kanada [89]. No ka mea, ʻoi aku ka maʻalahi o ka poʻe e noho ana ma nā hale noho kaiaulu i nā ʻuku moe a me nā ʻuku [80, 81], ua manaʻo mākou e kiʻekiʻe ka nui o ka pyrethrin I. I ko mākou ʻike, hoʻokahi wale nō haʻawina i hōʻike i nā nui o ka pyrethrin I i loko o ka ea o loko o nā hale noho, a ʻaʻohe mea i hōʻike i ka pyrethrin I i loko o nā hale noho kaiaulu. ʻOi aku ka kiʻekiʻe o nā nui a mākou i ʻike ai ma mua o nā mea i hōʻike ʻia ma ka palapala [90].
Ua kiʻekiʻe nō hoʻi nā ʻano Allethrin, me ka lua o ka ʻano kiʻekiʻe loa ma ka pae particulate ma 16,000 pg/m3, a ukali ʻia e ka permethrin (ʻo ka nui loa he 14,000 pg/m3). Hoʻohana nui ʻia ʻo Allethrin a me ka permethrin i ke kūkulu hale noho. E like me ka pyrethrin I, hoʻohana ʻia ka permethrin ma Kanada e mālama i nā ʻuku poʻo.[89] ʻO ka ʻano kiʻekiʻe loa o L-cyhalothrin i ʻike ʻia he 6,000 pg/m3. ʻOiai ʻaʻole i kākau inoa ʻia ʻo L-cyhalothrin no ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka home ma Kanada, ua ʻae ʻia no ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke kālepa e pale i ka lāʻau mai nā ʻanuʻu kamana.[55, 91]
ʻO ka huina kiʻekiʻe loa o \({\sum }_{8}{PYRs}\) i ka lewa he 740,000 pg/m3 (110,000–270,000 ma muli o ka waiwai Koa EPISuite). ʻOi aku ke kiʻekiʻe o nā ʻano allethrin a me permethrin ma aneʻi (ʻo 406,000 pg/m3 a me 14,500 pg/m3, kēlā me kēia) ma mua o nā mea i hōʻike ʻia ma nā haʻawina ea o loko o ka SES haʻahaʻa [26, 77, 78]. Eia nō naʻe, ua hōʻike ʻo Wyatt et al. i nā pae permethrin kiʻekiʻe aʻe i ka ea o loko o nā hale SES haʻahaʻa ma New York City ma mua o kā mākou mau hopena (12 mau manawa kiʻekiʻe aʻe) [76]. ʻO nā ʻano permethrin a mākou i ana ai mai ka hopena haʻahaʻa a hiki i ka nui o 5300 pg/m3.
ʻOiai ʻaʻole i kākau inoa ʻia nā biocides STR no ka hoʻohana ʻana i loko o ka home ma Kanada, hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia i kekahi mau mea kūkulu hale e like me ka ʻaoʻao pale ʻōpala [75, 93]. Ua ana mākou i nā ʻano haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa o ka particulate phase me ka nui loa o \({\sum }_{3}{STRs}\) o 1200 pg/m3 a me nā ʻano ea holoʻokoʻa \({\sum }_{3}{STRs}\) a hiki i ka 1300 pg/m3. ʻAʻole i ana mua ʻia nā ʻano STR i loko o ka ea o loko.
ʻO Imidacloprid kahi insecticide neonicotinoid i hoʻopaʻa inoa ʻia ma Kanada no ka kaohi ʻana i nā mea ʻino pepeke o nā holoholona home.[55] ʻO ka nui o ka imidacloprid i loko o ka pae particulate he 930 pg/m3, a ʻo ka nui o ka imidacloprid i ka lewa maʻamau he 34,000 pg/m3.
Ua kākau inoa ʻia ka fungicide propiconazole ma Kanada no ka hoʻohana ʻana ma ke ʻano he mea mālama lāʻau i nā mea kūkulu hale.[55] ʻO ka nui loa o ka nui a mākou i ana ai i ka pae particulate he 1100 pg/m3, a ua manaʻo ʻia ka nui loa o ka nui ma ka lewa maʻamau he 2200 pg/m3.
He pesticide dinitroaniline ʻo Pendimethalin me ka nui o ka particulate phase concentration o 4400 pg/m3 a me ka nui o ka ea holoʻokoʻa o 9100 pg/m3. ʻAʻole i kākau inoa ʻia ʻo Pendimethalin no ka hoʻohana ʻana ma ka hale noho ma Kanada, akā ʻo kekahi kumu o ka ʻike ʻana paha ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka paka, e like me ka mea i kūkākūkā ʻia ma lalo nei.
Ua pili nā pesticides he nui kekahi i kekahi (Papa S10). E like me ka mea i manaʻo ʻia, he mau pilina koʻikoʻi ko p,p′-DDT a me p,p′-DDE no ka mea he metabolite ʻo p,p′-DDE o p,p′-DDT. Pēlā nō, he pilina koʻikoʻi ko endosulfan I a me endosulfan II no ka mea he ʻelua diastereoisomers lāua e hui pū ana ma ka endosulfan loea. ʻOkoʻa ka lakio o nā diastereoisomers ʻelua (endosulfan I:endosulfan II) mai 2:1 a i 7:3 ma muli o ka hui loea [94]. I kā mākou noiʻi, ua like ka lakio mai 1:1 a i 2:1.
Ma hope iho, ua ʻimi mākou i nā hanana like ʻole e hōʻike ana i ka hoʻohana like ʻana o nā pesticides a me ka hoʻohana ʻana o nā pesticides he nui i loko o hoʻokahi huahana pesticide (e nānā i ka pakuhi breakpoint ma ke Kiʻi S4). No ka laʻana, hiki ke hana like ʻia no ka mea hiki ke hui pū ʻia nā mea hana me nā pesticides ʻē aʻe me nā ʻano hana like ʻole, e like me ka hui ʻana o pyriproxyfen a me tetramethrin. Maanei, ua ʻike mākou i kahi pilina (p < 0.01) a me ka hui pū ʻana (6 mau ʻāpana) o kēia mau pesticides (Kiʻi S4 a me ka Papa S10), e kūlike me kā lākou hui pū ʻana [75]. Ua ʻike ʻia nā pilina koʻikoʻi (p < 0.01) a me nā hanana like ʻana ma waena o nā OCP e like me p,p′-DDT me lindane (5 mau ʻāpana) a me heptachlor (6 mau ʻāpana), e hōʻike ana ua hoʻohana ʻia lākou i loko o kekahi manawa a i ʻole i hoʻopili pū ʻia ma mua o ka hoʻokomo ʻia ʻana o nā kapu. ʻAʻohe noho like ʻana o nā OFP i ʻike ʻia, koe wale nō ka diazinon a me ka malathion, i ʻike ʻia ma 2 mau ʻāpana.
ʻO ke kiʻekiʻe o ka hui pū ʻana (8 mau ʻāpana) i ʻike ʻia ma waena o pyriproxyfen, imidacloprid a me permethrin hiki ke wehewehe ʻia e ka hoʻohana ʻana i kēia mau pesticides ikaika ʻekolu i nā huahana insecticidal no ka kaohi ʻana i nā ticks, lice a me nā fleas ma nā ʻīlio [95]. Eia kekahi, ua ʻike pū ʻia nā helu hui pū ʻana o ka imidacloprid a me L-cypermethrin (4 mau ʻāpana), propargyltrine (4 mau ʻāpana) a me pyrethrin I (9 mau ʻāpana). I ko mākou ʻike, ʻaʻohe hōʻike i paʻi ʻia no ka hui pū ʻana o ka imidacloprid me L-cypermethrin, propargyltrine a me pyrethrin I ma Kanada. Eia nō naʻe, aia nā pesticides i hoʻopaʻa inoa ʻia ma nā ʻāina ʻē aʻe i nā hui ʻana o ka imidacloprid me L-cypermethrin a me propargyltrine [96, 97]. Eia kekahi, ʻaʻole mākou i ʻike i kekahi huahana i loaʻa ka hui ʻana o ka pyrethrin I a me ka imidacloprid. ʻO ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā insecticides ʻelua e wehewehe paha i ka hui pū ʻana i ʻike ʻia, ʻoiai ua hoʻohana ʻia nā mea ʻelua e kāohi i nā ʻuku moe, kahi mea maʻamau i nā hale noho kaiaulu [86, 98]. Ua ʻike mākou ua pili pono ka permethrin a me ka pyrethrin I (16 mau ʻāpana) (p < 0.01) a ʻo ia ka helu kiʻekiʻe loa o nā hui like ʻana, e hōʻike ana ua hoʻohana pū ʻia lākou; he ʻoiaʻiʻo nō hoʻi kēia no ka pyrethrin I a me ka allethrin (7 mau ʻāpana, p < 0.05), ʻoiai ʻo ka permethrin a me ka allethrin he haʻahaʻa ka pilina (5 mau ʻāpana, p < 0.05) [75]. ʻO ka pendimethalin, permethrin a me ka thiophanate-methyl, i hoʻohana ʻia ma nā mea kanu paka, ua hōʻike pū i ka pilina a me ka hui pū ʻana ma ʻeiwa mau ʻāpana. Ua ʻike ʻia nā pilina hou a me nā hui like ʻana ma waena o nā pesticides no ka mea ʻaʻole i hōʻike ʻia nā hui like ʻana, e like me ka permethrin me STRs (ʻo ia hoʻi, azoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin, a me trifloxystrobin).
Hilinaʻi nui ka mahi ʻana a me ka hana ʻana i ka paka i nā pesticides. Hoʻemi ʻia nā pae pesticides i loko o ka paka i ka wā o ka ʻohi ʻana, ka hoʻōla ʻana, a me ka hana ʻana i ka huahana hope loa. Eia nō naʻe, ke waiho nei nā koena pesticide i loko o nā lau paka.[99] Eia kekahi, hiki ke mālama ʻia nā lau paka me nā pesticides ma hope o ka ʻohi ʻana.[100] ʻO ka hopena, ua ʻike ʻia nā pesticides i loko o nā lau paka a me ka uahi.
Ma Ontario, ʻoi aku ma mua o ka hapalua o nā hale noho kaiāulu nui he 12 ʻaʻohe kulekele uahi ʻole, e hoʻoweliweli ana i nā kamaʻāina i ka ʻike ʻia ʻana o ka uahi lua.[101] ʻAʻohe kulekele uahi ʻole o nā hale noho kaiāulu MURB i kā mākou noiʻi. Ua noiʻi mākou i nā kamaʻāina e loaʻa ka ʻike e pili ana i kā lākou mau hana puhipaka a ua hana i nā nānā ʻāpana i ka wā o nā kipa home e ʻike i nā hōʻailona o ka puhipaka.[59, 64] I ka hoʻoilo 2017, 30% o nā kamaʻāina (14 mai 46) i puhipaka.
Ka manawa hoʻouna: Pepeluali-06-2025