ʻO ka pīpī koena i loko (IRS) ke kumu nui o nā hana kaohi vector visceral leishmaniasis (VL) ma India. ʻAʻole ʻike nui ʻia e pili ana i ka hopena o nā kaohi IRS ma nā ʻano ʻohana like ʻole. Maanei mākou e loiloi ai inā loaʻa i ka IRS e hoʻohana ana i nā insecticides nā hopena koena a me nā hopena hana like no nā ʻano ʻohana āpau ma ke kauhale. Ua hoʻomohala pū mākou i nā palapala ʻāina pilikia spatial i hui pū ʻia a me nā hiʻohiʻona loiloi density namu e pili ana i nā ʻano o ka hale, ka ʻike pesticide, a me ke kūlana IRS e nānā i ka hoʻolaha spatiotemporal o nā vectors ma ka pae microscale.
Ua mālama ʻia ke aʻo ʻana ma nā kauhale ʻelua o ka poloka Mahnar ma ka ʻāpana ʻo Vaishali o Bihar. Ua loiloi ʻia ka kaohi ʻana o nā vectors VL (P. argentipes) e ka IRS me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ʻelua mau insecticides [dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT 50%) a me nā pyrethroids synthetic (SP 5%)]. Ua loiloi ʻia ka hopena koena manawa o nā insecticides ma nā ʻano pā like ʻole me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke ʻano cone bioassay e like me ka ʻōlelo a ka World Health Organization. Ua nānā ʻia ka ʻike o ka silverfish maoli i nā insecticides me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi bioassay in vitro. Ua nānā ʻia nā densities namu ma mua a ma hope o ka IRS ma nā hale noho a me nā hale noho holoholona me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā pahele māmā i hoʻokomo ʻia e nā Centers for Disease Control mai ka hola 6:00 pm a i ka hola 6:00 am Ua hoʻomohala ʻia ke kumu hoʻohālike kūpono loa no ka loiloi density namu me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka loiloi regression logistic maha. Ua hoʻohana ʻia ka ʻenehana loiloi spatial e pili ana i ka GIS e palapala i ka hoʻolaha ʻana o ka ʻike pesticide vector e ke ʻano o ka hale, a ua hoʻohana ʻia ke kūlana IRS o ka hale e wehewehe i ka hoʻolaha spatiotemporal o ka ʻōpae silver.
He ʻano maʻalahi loa nā makika kālā i ka SP (100%), akā hōʻike i ke kūʻē kiʻekiʻe i ka DDT, me ka nui o ka make ʻana o 49.1%. Ua hōʻike ʻia ua ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka ʻae ʻia ʻana o ka lehulehu e ka SP-IRS ma mua o ka DDT-IRS ma waena o nā ʻano hale āpau. ʻOkoʻa ka hopena o ke koena ma nā ʻili pā like ʻole; ʻaʻohe o nā insecticides i hoʻokō i ka lōʻihi o ka hana i ʻōlelo ʻia e ka IRS o ka World Health Organization. Ma nā manawa āpau ma hope o ka IRS, ʻoi aku ka nui o ka emi ʻana o nā ʻōpala pilau ma muli o ka SP-IRS ma waena o nā hui hale (ʻo ia hoʻi, nā mea pīpī a me nā kiaʻi) ma mua o ka DDT-IRS. Hōʻike ka palapala ʻāina pilikia spatial i hui pū ʻia he ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka hopena kaohi o ka SP-IRS ma nā makika ma mua o ka DDT-IRS ma nā wahi pilikia ʻano hale āpau. Ua ʻike ka loiloi regression logistic multilevel i ʻelima mau mea pilikia i pili pono me ka nui o ka ʻōpae kālā.
E hāʻawi nā hopena i kahi ʻike maikaʻi aʻe i nā hana IRS i ka kaohi ʻana i ka visceral leishmaniasis ma Bihar, kahi mea e kōkua ai i ke alakaʻi ʻana i nā hana e hiki mai ana e hoʻomaikaʻi i ke kūlana.
ʻO ka Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), i ʻike ʻia hoʻi ʻo kala-azar, he maʻi vector tropical i hoʻokuʻu ʻia i hoʻokumu ʻia e nā parasites protozoan o ka genus Leishmania. Ma ka ʻāina ʻo India (IS), kahi i loaʻa ai i nā kānaka wale nō ka mea hoʻokipa waihona, ua hoʻoili ʻia ka parasite (ʻo ia hoʻi ʻo Leishmania donovani) i nā kānaka ma o nā nahu o nā makika wahine i loaʻa i ka maʻi (Phlebotomus argentipes) [1, 2]. Ma India, loaʻa nui ʻo VL ma nā mokuʻāina waena a me ka hikina ʻehā: ʻo Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal a me Uttar Pradesh. Ua hōʻike ʻia kekahi mau maʻi ahulau ma Madhya Pradesh (Central India), Gujarat (Western India), Tamil Nadu a me Kerala (South India), a ma nā wahi sub-Himalayan o ka ʻākau o India, me Himachal Pradesh a me Jammu a me Kashmir. 3]. Ma waena o nā mokuʻāina endemic, he endemic loa ʻo Bihar me 33 mau ʻāpana i hoʻopilikia ʻia e VL e helu ana ma mua o 70% o nā hihia āpau ma India i kēlā me kēia makahiki [4]. Ma kahi o 99 miliona mau kānaka ma ka ʻāina e pilikia nei, me ka awelika o ka hanana makahiki he 6,752 mau hihia (2013-2017).
Ma Bihar a me nā wahi ʻē aʻe o India, hilinaʻi nā hana kaohi VL i ʻekolu mau hoʻolālā nui: ka ʻike mua ʻana i nā hihia, ka mālama pono ʻana, a me ka kaohi vector me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka insecticide spraying i loko (IRS) i loko o nā hale a me nā hale mālama holoholona [4, 5]. Ma ke ʻano he hopena ʻaoʻao o nā hoʻolaha antimalarial, ua hoʻomalu pono ka IRS i ka VL i nā makahiki 1960 me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT 50% WP, 1 g ai/m2), a ua hoʻomalu pono ka kaohi programmatic i ka VL i ka makahiki 1977 a me 1992 [5, 6]. Eia nō naʻe, ua hōʻoia nā haʻawina hou ua hoʻomohala ka ʻōpae ʻōpū kālā i ke kūʻē ākea i ka DDT [4,7,8]. I ka makahiki 2015, ua hoʻololi ka National Vector Borne Disease Control Program (NVBDCP, New Delhi) i ka IRS mai DDT i nā pyrethroids synthetic (SP; alpha-cypermethrin 5% WP, 25 mg ai/m2) [7, 9]. Ua hoʻonohonoho ka World Health Organization (WHO) i kahi pahuhopu o ka hoʻopau ʻana i ka VL ma ka makahiki 2020 (ʻo ia hoʻi <1 hihia no 10,000 poʻe i kēlā me kēia makahiki ma ka pae alanui/poloka) [10]. Ua hōʻike ʻia kekahi mau noiʻi he ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka IRS ma mua o nā ʻano hana hoʻomalu vector ʻē aʻe i ka hoʻēmi ʻana i ka nui o nā lele one [11,12,13]. Ua wānana pū kekahi kumu hoʻohālike hou i nā wahi ahulau kiʻekiʻe (ʻo ia hoʻi, ka helu ahulau ma mua o ka hoʻomalu ʻana o 5/10,000), hiki i kahi IRS kūpono e uhi ana i 80% o nā ʻohana ke hoʻokō i nā pahuhopu hoʻopau i hoʻokahi a ʻekolu mau makahiki ma mua [14]. Hoʻopilikia ka VL i nā kaiāulu kuaʻāina ʻilihune loa ma nā wahi endemic a hilinaʻi wale kā lākou hoʻomalu vector ma ka IRS, akā ʻaʻole i aʻo ʻia ka hopena koena o kēia ana hoʻomalu ma nā ʻano ʻohana like ʻole ma ke kahua ma nā wahi hana [15, 16]. Eia kekahi, ma hope o ka hana nui e hakakā ai iā VL, ua mau ka ahulau ma kekahi mau kauhale no kekahi mau makahiki a lilo i mau wahi wela [17]. No laila, pono e loiloi i ka hopena koena o ka IRS ma ka nānā ʻana i ka nui o nā makika ma nā ʻano ʻohana like ʻole. Eia kekahi, e kōkua ka palapala ʻāina pilikia geospatial microscale i ka hoʻomaopopo maikaʻi ʻana a me ka kaohi ʻana i nā heluna makika ma hope o ke komo ʻana. ʻO nā ʻōnaehana ʻike honua (GIS) kahi hui pū ʻana o nā ʻenehana palapala ʻāina kikohoʻe e hiki ai ke mālama, hoʻopili, hoʻoponopono, nānā, loaʻa a me ka nānā ʻana i nā ʻano like ʻole o ka ʻikepili kaiapuni honua a me ka socio-demographic no nā kumu like ʻole [18, 19, 20]. . Hoʻohana ʻia ka ʻōnaehana kūlana honua (GPS) e aʻo i ke kūlana spatial o nā ʻāpana o ka ʻili o ka honua [21, 22]. Ua hoʻopili ʻia nā mea hana a me nā ʻenehana hoʻohālike spatial GIS a me GPS i kekahi mau ʻano epidemiological, e like me ka loiloi maʻi spatial a me ka manawa a me ka wānana outbreak, ka hoʻokō ʻana a me ka loiloi ʻana i nā hoʻolālā kaohi, nā pilina o nā pathogens me nā mea kaiapuni, a me ka palapala ʻāina pilikia spatial. [20,23,24,25,26]. Hiki i ka ʻike i hōʻiliʻili ʻia a loaʻa mai nā palapala ʻāina pilikia geospatial ke hoʻomaʻamaʻa i nā ana kaohi kūpono a me ka maikaʻi.
Ua loiloi kēia haʻawina i ka pono a me ka hopena o ke komo ʻana o DDT a me SP-IRS ma ka pae ʻohana ma lalo o ka National VL Vector Control Program ma Bihar, India. ʻO nā pahuhopu ʻē aʻe, ʻo ia ka hoʻomohala ʻana i kahi palapala ʻāina pilikia spatial i hui pū ʻia a me ke kumu hoʻohālike loiloi density makika e pili ana i nā ʻano o ka hale noho, ka susceptibility vector insecticide, a me ke kūlana IRS o ka ʻohana e nānā i ka hierarchy o ka hoʻolaha spatiotemporal o nā makika microscale.
Ua mālama ʻia ke aʻo ʻana ma ka poloka Mahnar o ka ʻāpana ʻo Vaishali ma ke kapa ʻākau o ka Ganga (Kiʻi 1). He wahi laha loa ʻo Makhnar, me ka awelika o 56.7 mau hihia o VL i kēlā me kēia makahiki (170 mau hihia ma 2012-2014), ʻo ka helu hanana makahiki he 2.5-3.7 mau hihia no 10,000 heluna kanaka; Ua koho ʻia ʻelua mau kauhale: ʻo Chakeso ma ke ʻano he wahi hoʻomalu (Kiʻi 1d1; ʻaʻohe hihia o VL i nā makahiki ʻelima i hala) a me Lavapur Mahanar ma ke ʻano he wahi laha loa (Kiʻi 1d2; laha loa, me 5 a ʻoi aku paha nā hihia no 1000 poʻe i kēlā me kēia makahiki). i nā makahiki 5 i hala). Ua koho ʻia nā kauhale ma muli o ʻekolu mau kumu nui: kahi a me ke komo ʻana (ʻo ia hoʻi aia ma kahi muliwai me ke komo maʻalahi i ka makahiki holoʻokoʻa), nā ʻano demographic a me ka helu o nā ʻohana (ʻo ia hoʻi ma ka liʻiliʻi he 200 mau ʻohana; Loaʻa iā Chaqueso he 202 a me 204 mau ʻohana me ka awelika o ka nui o ka ʻohana). 4.9 a me 5.1 mau kānaka) a me Lavapur Mahanar) a me ke ʻano o ka ʻohana (HT) a me ke ʻano o ko lākou hoʻolaha ʻana (ʻo ia hoʻi ka HT hui like ʻole i hoʻolaha ʻia). Aia nā kauhale noiʻi ʻelua i loko o 500 m o ke kūlanakauhale ʻo Makhnar a me ka haukapila ʻāpana. Ua hōʻike ka noiʻi ua komo ikaika nā kamaʻāina o nā kauhale noiʻi i nā hana noiʻi. ʻO nā hale ma ke kauhale hoʻomaʻamaʻa [aia i loko o 1-2 lumi moe me 1 lānai i hoʻopili ʻia, 1 lumi kuke, 1 lumi ʻauʻau a me 1 hale papaʻa (i hoʻopili ʻia a hoʻokaʻawale ʻia paha)] he mau paia brick/lepo a me nā papahele adobe, nā paia brick me ka lime cement plaster. a me nā papahele sima, nā paia brick i hoʻopili ʻole ʻia a pena ʻole ʻia, nā papahele lepo a me kahi hale mauʻu. Loaʻa i ka ʻāina ʻo Vaishali holoʻokoʻa kahi aniau subtropical humid me ke kau ua (Iulai a ʻAukake) a me ke kau maloʻo (Nowemapa a Dekemaba). ʻO ka awelika o ka ua makahiki he 720.4 mm (pae 736.5-1076.7 mm), ka haʻahaʻa pili 65±5% (pae 16-79%), ka awelika o ka mahana mahina 17.2-32.4°C. ʻO Mei a me Iune nā mahina mehana loa (mahana 39–44 °C), ʻoiai ʻo Ianuali ke anu loa (7–22 °C).
Hōʻike ka palapala ʻāina o ka wahi i aʻo ʻia i kahi o Bihar ma ka palapala ʻāina o India (a) a me kahi o ka ʻāpana ʻo Vaishali ma ka palapala ʻāina o Bihar (b). Poloka Makhnar (c) Ua koho ʻia ʻelua mau kauhale no ke aʻo ʻana: ʻo Chakeso ma ke ʻano he kahua hoʻomalu a ʻo Lavapur Makhnar ma ke ʻano he kahua hana.
Ma ke ʻano he ʻāpana o ka Polokalamu Hoʻomalu Kalaazar Lahui, ua mālama ka Papa Ola Ola o ka ʻAhahui Bihar (SHSB) i ʻelua mau puni o ka IRS makahiki i ka makahiki 2015 a me 2016 (puni mua, Pepeluali-Malaki; puni ʻelua, Iune-Iulai)[4]. No ka hōʻoia ʻana i ka hoʻokō pono ʻana o nā hana IRS āpau, ua hoʻomākaukau ʻia kahi hoʻolālā hana micro e ka Rajendra Memorial Medical Institute (RMRIMS; Bihar), Patna, he lālā o ka ʻAha Kūkākūkā Noiʻi Lapaʻau India (ICMR; New Delhi). nodal institute. Ua koho ʻia nā kauhale IRS ma muli o ʻelua mau kumu nui: ka mōʻaukala o nā hihia o VL a me retrodermal kala-azar (RPKDL) ma ke kauhale (ʻo ia hoʻi, nā kauhale me 1 a ʻoi aku paha nā hihia i kēlā me kēia manawa i nā makahiki 3 i hala, me ka makahiki o ka hoʻokō ʻana). , nā kauhale ʻaʻole endemic a puni nā "wahi wela" (ʻo ia hoʻi nā kauhale i hōʻike mau i nā hihia no ≥ 2 mau makahiki a i ʻole ≥ 2 mau hihia no 1000 poʻe) a me nā kauhale endemic hou (ʻaʻohe hihia i nā makahiki 3 i hala) nā kauhale i ka makahiki hope o ka makahiki hoʻokō i hōʻike ʻia ma [17]. ʻO nā kauhale kokoke e hoʻokō ana i ka pōʻai mua o ka ʻauhau aupuni, ua hoʻokomo pū ʻia nā kauhale hou i ka pōʻai ʻelua o ka hoʻolālā hana ʻauhau aupuni. I ka makahiki 2015, ua mālama ʻia ʻelua mau pōʻai o ka IRS e hoʻohana ana i ka DDT (DDT 50% WP, 1 g ai/m2) ma nā kauhale noiʻi komo. Mai ka makahiki 2016, ua hana ʻia ka IRS me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā pyrethroids synthetic (SP; alpha-cypermethrin 5% VP, 25 mg ai/m2). Ua hana ʻia ka pīpī ʻana me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka pamu Hudson Xpert (13.4 L) me kahi pale kaomi, kahi valve kahe loli (1.5 bar) a me kahi nozzle jet pālahalaha 8002 no nā ʻili porous [27]. Ua nānā ʻo ICMR-RMRIMS, Patna (Bihar) i ka IRS ma ka pae hale a me ke kauhale a hāʻawi i ka ʻike mua e pili ana i ka IRS i nā kamaʻāina ma o nā microphones i loko o nā lā 1-2 mua. Ua lako kēlā me kēia hui IRS me kahi monitor (i hāʻawi ʻia e RMRIMS) e nānā i ka hana a ka hui IRS. Hoʻouna ʻia nā Ombudsman, me nā hui IRS, i nā ʻohana āpau e hoʻomaopopo a hōʻoluʻolu i nā poʻo o nā ʻohana e pili ana i nā hopena maikaʻi o ka IRS. I loko o ʻelua mau puni o nā noiʻi IRS, ua hōʻea ka uhi ʻana o ka ʻohana holoʻokoʻa ma nā kauhale noiʻi ma ka liʻiliʻi he 80% [4]. Ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia ke kūlana pīpī (ʻo ia hoʻi, ʻaʻohe pīpī, pīpī hapa, a me ka pīpī piha; i wehewehe ʻia ma ka faila Hou 1: Papa S1) no nā ʻohana āpau ma ke kauhale hana i nā puni ʻelua o ka IRS.
Ua mālama ʻia ke aʻo ʻana mai Iune 2015 a Iulai 2016. Ua hoʻohana ka IRS i nā kikowaena maʻi no ka nānā ʻana ma mua o ke komo ʻana (ʻo ia hoʻi, 2 pule ma mua o ke komo ʻana; anamanaʻo kumu) a ma hope o ke komo ʻana (ʻo ia hoʻi, 2, 4, a me 12 pule ma hope o ke komo ʻana; anamanaʻo hahai) ka nānā ʻana, ka hoʻomalu ʻana i ka nui, a me ka pale ʻana i ka lele one ma kēlā me kēia puni IRS. ma kēlā me kēia ʻohana Hoʻokahi pō (ʻo ia hoʻi mai ka hola 18:00 a i ka hola 6:00) pahele māmā [28]. Ua hoʻokomo ʻia nā pahele māmā i loko o nā lumi moe a me nā hale mālama holoholona. Ma ke kauhale kahi i mālama ʻia ai ke aʻo ʻana i ke komo ʻana, ua hoʻāʻo ʻia he 48 mau ʻohana no ka nui o ka lele one ma mua o ka IRS (12 mau ʻohana i kēlā me kēia lā no 4 mau lā a hiki i ka lā ma mua o ka lā IRS). Ua koho ʻia he 12 no kēlā me kēia o nā hui nui ʻehā o nā ʻohana (ʻo ia hoʻi ka plaster lepo maʻemaʻe (PMP), nā ʻohana plaster sima a me ka uhi lime (CPLC), nā ʻohana brick i hoʻopili ʻole ʻia a pena ʻole ʻia (BUU) a me nā ʻohana hale uhi thatched (TH). Ma hope iho, ua koho ʻia he 12 mau ʻohana wale nō (mai loko mai o 48 mau ʻohana ma mua o ka IRS) e hoʻomau i ka hōʻiliʻili ʻana i ka ʻikepili nui o nā makika ma hope o ka hālāwai IRS. Wahi a nā ʻōlelo aʻoaʻo a WHO, ua koho ʻia he 6 mau ʻohana mai ka hui hana komo (nā ʻohana e loaʻa ana i ka mālama IRS) a me ka hui kiaʻi (nā ʻohana ma nā kauhale hana komo, nā mea nona ka ʻae IRS) [28]. Ma waena o ka hui kaohi (nā ʻohana ma nā kauhale kokoke i ʻole i hana ʻia ka IRS ma muli o ka nele o VL), ua koho ʻia he 6 mau ʻohana e nānā i ka nui o nā makika ma mua a ma hope o ʻelua mau hālāwai IRS. No nā hui nānā ʻekolu o ka nui o nā makika (ʻo ia hoʻi ke komo ʻana, ke kiaʻi a me ka kaohi), ua koho ʻia nā ʻohana mai ʻekolu mau hui pae pilikia (ʻo ia hoʻi ka haʻahaʻa, waena a me ke kiʻekiʻe; ʻelua mau ʻohana mai kēlā me kēia pae pilikia) a ua hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā ʻano pilikia HT (hōʻike ʻia nā modula a me nā ʻano ma ka Papa 1 a me ka Papa 2, kēlā me kēia) [29, 30]. Ua koho ʻia ʻelua mau ʻohana no kēlā me kēia pae pilikia e pale aku i nā kuhi nui o nā makika a me nā hoʻohālikelike ma waena o nā hui. I loko o ka hui hana komo, ua nānā ʻia ka nui o nā makika ma hope o ka IRS ma nā ʻano ʻelua o nā ʻohana IRS: i mālama piha ʻia (n = 3; 1 ʻohana no kēlā me kēia pae hui pilikia) a i mālama hapa ʻia (n = 3; 1 ʻohana no kēlā me kēia pae hui pilikia). hui pilikia).
Ua hoʻoili ʻia nā makika āpau i hopu ʻia ma ke kula i hōʻiliʻili ʻia i loko o nā ʻōmole hoʻāʻo i ka hale hana, a ua pepehi ʻia nā ʻōmole hoʻāʻo me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka pulupulu i hoʻoluʻu ʻia i loko o ka chloroform. Ua hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā nalo one kālā mai nā pepeke ʻē aʻe a me nā makika ma muli o nā ʻano morphological me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā code ʻike maʻamau [31]. A laila ua hoʻokomo ʻokoʻa ʻia nā ʻōpae kālā kāne a wahine a pau i loko o ka waiʻona 80%. Ua helu ʻia ka nui o nā makika no kēlā me kēia pahele/pō me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kēia ʻano hana: ka huina o nā makika i hōʻiliʻili ʻia/ka helu o nā pahele māmā i hoʻonohonoho ʻia i kēlā me kēia pō. Ua manaʻo ʻia ka pakeneka o ka loli ʻana o ka nui o nā makika (SFC) ma muli o ka IRS me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka DDT a me SP me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kēia ʻano hana [32]:
kahi ʻo A ka awelika kumu SFC no nā ʻohana hana komo, ʻo B ka awelika kumu SFC o ka IRS no nā ʻohana hana komo, ʻo C ka awelika kumu SFC no nā ʻohana kaohi/kiaʻi, a ʻo D ka awelika SFC no nā ʻohana kaohi/kiaʻi IRS.
ʻO nā hopena hopena komo, i hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma ke ʻano he mau waiwai maikaʻi ʻole a maikaʻi hoʻi, e hōʻike ana i ka emi ʻana a me ka piʻi ʻana o SFC ma hope o ka IRS, kēlā me kēia. Inā like ka SFC ma hope o ka IRS me ka SFC kumu, ua helu ʻia ka hopena komo ma ke ʻano he ʻole.
Wahi a ka World Health Organization Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES), ua loiloi ʻia ka ʻike o ka ʻōpae silverleg maoli i nā pesticides DDT a me SP me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā bioassays in vitro maʻamau [33]. Ua hōʻike ʻia nā ʻōpae silverleg wahine olakino a me ka hānai ʻole ʻia (18-25 SF no kēlā me kēia hui) i nā pesticides i loaʻa mai Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM, Malaysia; i hoʻonohonoho ʻia e ka World Health Organization) me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka World Health Organization Pesticide Sensitivity Test Kit [4,9, 33,34]. Ua hoʻāʻo ʻia kēlā me kēia set o nā bioassays pesticide i ʻewalu mau manawa (ʻehā mau hana hoʻāʻo, holo like kēlā me kēia me ka mana). Ua hana ʻia nā hoʻāʻo mana me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka pepa i hoʻopiha mua ʻia me ka risella (no DDT) a me ka ʻaila silicone (no SP) i hāʻawi ʻia e USM. Ma hope o 60 mau minuke o ka hōʻike ʻana, ua hoʻokomo ʻia nā makika i loko o nā ʻōmole WHO a hāʻawi ʻia me ka pulupulu absorbent i hoʻomoʻa ʻia i loko o kahi hopena kō 10%. Ua nānā ʻia ka nui o nā makika i make ma hope o 1 hola a me ka make hope loa ma hope o 24 mau hola. Ua wehewehe ʻia ke kūlana kū'ē e like me nā alakaʻi o ka World Health Organization: ʻo ka make ʻana o 98-100% e hōʻike ana i ka hiki ke hoʻopilikia ʻia, ʻo 90-98% e hōʻike ana i ka hiki ke kū'ē e pono ai ka hōʻoia, a ʻo <90% e hōʻike ana i ke kū'ē [33, 34]. No ka mea, ʻo ka make ma ka hui kaohi mai 0 a 5%, ʻaʻohe hoʻoponopono make i hana ʻia.
Ua loiloi ʻia ka bioefficacy a me nā hopena koena o nā insecticides ma nā termites kūloko ma lalo o nā kūlana kahua. I loko o ʻekolu mau ʻohana hana komo (hoʻokahi me ka plaster lepo maʻemaʻe a i ʻole PMP, plaster sima a me ka uhi lime a i ʻole CPLC, brick unplasted a pena ʻole ʻia a i ʻole BUU) ma 2, 4 a me 12 mau pule ma hope o ka pīpī ʻana. Ua hana ʻia kahi bioassay WHO maʻamau ma nā cones e loaʻa ana nā pahele māmā. ua hoʻokumu ʻia [27, 32]. Ua kāpae ʻia ka hoʻomehana ʻana o ka hale ma muli o nā paia like ʻole. I kēlā me kēia loiloi, ua hoʻohana ʻia he 12 mau cones ma nā hale hoʻokolohua āpau (ʻehā mau cones no kēlā me kēia home, hoʻokahi no kēlā me kēia ʻano ʻili o ka paia). E hoʻopili i nā cones i kēlā me kēia paia o ka lumi ma nā kiʻekiʻe like ʻole: hoʻokahi ma ke poʻo (mai 1.7 a 1.8 m), ʻelua ma ka pae pūhaka (mai 0.9 a 1 m) a hoʻokahi ma lalo o ke kuli (mai 0.3 a 0 .5 m). He ʻumi mau makika wahine hānai ʻole ʻia (10 no kēlā me kēia cone; i hōʻiliʻili ʻia mai kahi ʻāpana hoʻomalu me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi aspirator) i kau ʻia i loko o kēlā me kēia keʻena cone plastik WHO (hoʻokahi cone no kēlā me kēia ʻano ʻohana) ma ke ʻano he mau kaohi. Ma hope o 30 mau minuke o ka hōʻike ʻana, e wehe pono i nā makika mai loko mai; e hoʻohana i kahi mea ʻūlū kuʻekuʻe a hoʻoili iā lākou i loko o nā ʻōmole WHO e loaʻa ana he 10% o ka hopena kō no ka hānai ʻana. Ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia ka make hope loa ma hope o 24 mau hola ma 27 ± 2°C a me 80 ± 10% ka haʻahaʻa pili. Hoʻoponopono ʻia nā helu make me nā helu ma waena o 5% a me 20% me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke ʻano Abbott [27] penei:
kahi ʻo P ka make i hoʻoponopono ʻia, ʻo P1 ka pakeneka make i ʻike ʻia, a ʻo C ka pakeneka make kaohi. Ua hoʻolei ʻia nā hoʻokolohua me ka make kaohi >20% a holo hou [27, 33].
Ua mālama ʻia kahi noiʻi piha o ka ʻohana ma ke kauhale hana komo. Ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia ka wahi GPS o kēlā me kēia ʻohana me kona ʻano hoʻolālā a me nā mea hana, ka hale noho, a me ke kūlana hana komo. Ua hoʻomohala ka paepae GIS i kahi geodatabase kikohoʻe e komo pū ana me nā papa palena ma nā pae kauhale, ʻāpana, ʻāpana a me ka mokuʻāina. Ua hoʻopaʻa inoa ʻia nā wahi āpau o ka ʻohana me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā papa kiko GIS pae kauhale, a ua hoʻopili ʻia a hōʻano hou ʻia kā lākou ʻike ʻano. Ma kēlā me kēia wahi o ka ʻohana, ua loiloi ʻia ka pilikia ma muli o HT, ka susceptibility vector insecticide, a me ke kūlana IRS (Papa 1) [11, 26, 29, 30]. A laila ua hoʻololi ʻia nā wahi āpau o ka ʻohana i nā palapala ʻāina kumuhana me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke kaumaha mamao inverse (IDW; hoʻonā e pili ana i ka awelika o ka ʻāina o ka ʻohana he 6 m2, mana 2, helu paʻa o nā wahi a puni = 10, me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka radius hulina loli, kānana pass haʻahaʻa). a me ka cubic convolution mapping) ʻenehana interpolation spatial [35]. Ua hana ʻia ʻelua ʻano o nā palapala ʻāina pilikia spatial thematic: nā palapala ʻāina kumuhana HT a me ka pesticide vector sensitivity a me ke kūlana IRS (ISV a me IRSS) nā palapala ʻāina kumuhana. A laila ua hoʻohui ʻia nā palapala ʻāina pilikia kumuhana ʻelua me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka loiloi overlay kaumaha [36]. I loko o kēia kaʻina hana, ua hoʻokaʻawale hou ʻia nā papa raster i nā papa makemake maʻamau no nā pae pilikia like ʻole (ʻo ia hoʻi, kiʻekiʻe, waena, a haʻahaʻa/ʻaʻohe pilikia). A laila ua hoʻonui ʻia kēlā me kēia papa raster i hoʻokaʻawale hou ʻia e ke kaumaha i hāʻawi ʻia iā ia ma muli o ke koʻikoʻi o nā palena e kākoʻo ana i ka nui o nā makika (ma muli o ka laha ma nā kauhale noiʻi, nā wahi hānau makika, a me ke ʻano hoʻomaha a me ka hānai ʻana) [26, 29]. , 30, 37]. Ua kaupaona ʻia nā palapala ʻāina pilikia kumuhana ʻelua he 50:50 i ko lākou hāʻawi like ʻana i ka nui o nā makika (Faila hou 1: Papa S2). Ma ka hōʻuluʻulu ʻana i nā palapala ʻāina kumuhana overlay kaumaha, ua hana ʻia kahi palapala ʻāina pilikia hui hope loa a ʻike ʻia ma ka paepae GIS. Hōʻike ʻia a wehewehe ʻia ka palapala ʻāina pilikia hope loa ma ke ʻano o nā waiwai Sand Fly Risk Index (SFRI) i helu ʻia me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kēia ʻano hana:
Ma ke ʻano haʻilula, ʻo P ka waiwai helu pilikia, ʻo L ka waiwai pilikia holoʻokoʻa no ka wahi o kēlā me kēia ʻohana, a ʻo H ka waiwai pilikia kiʻekiʻe loa no kahi ʻohana ma ka wahi i aʻo ʻia. Ua hoʻomākaukau a hana mākou i nā papa GIS a me ka nānā ʻana me ka hoʻohana ʻana iā ESRI ArcGIS v.9.3 (Redlands, CA, USA) e hana i nā palapala ʻāina pilikia.
Ua hana mākou i nā loiloi regression he nui e nānā i nā hopena i hui pū ʻia o HT, ISV, a me IRSS (e like me ka mea i wehewehe ʻia ma ka Papa 1) ma nā ʻano makika hale (n = 24). Ua mālama ʻia nā ʻano hale a me nā mea pilikia e pili ana i ke komo ʻana o ka IRS i hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma ke aʻo ʻana he mau loli wehewehe, a ua hoʻohana ʻia ka nui o ka makika ma ke ʻano he loli pane. Ua hana ʻia nā loiloi regression Poisson Univariate no kēlā me kēia loli wehewehe e pili ana i ka nui o ka lele one. I ka wā o ka loiloi univariate, ua wehe ʻia nā loli i ʻole koʻikoʻi a he waiwai P ʻoi aku ma mua o 15% mai ka loiloi regression he nui. No ka nānā ʻana i nā pilina, ua hoʻokomo pū ʻia nā huaʻōlelo pilina no nā hui pū ʻana o nā loli koʻikoʻi (i loaʻa i ka loiloi univariate) i ka loiloi regression he nui, a ua wehe ʻia nā huaʻōlelo koʻikoʻi ʻole mai ke kumu hoʻohālike ma ke ʻano stepwise e hana i ke kumu hoʻohālike hope loa.
Ua hoʻokō ʻia ka loiloi pilikia pae ʻohana ma nā ʻano ʻelua: ka loiloi pilikia pae ʻohana a me ka loiloi spatial i hui pū ʻia o nā wahi pilikia ma ka palapala ʻāina. Ua kuhi ʻia nā kuhi pilikia pae ʻohana me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka loiloi pilina ma waena o nā kuhi pilikia ʻohana a me ka nui o nā lele one (i hōʻiliʻili ʻia mai 6 mau ʻohana kiaʻi a me 6 mau ʻohana hana komo; nā pule ma mua a ma hope o ka hoʻokō ʻana o ka IRS). Ua kuhi ʻia nā wahi pilikia spatial me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka helu awelika o nā makika i hōʻiliʻili ʻia mai nā ʻohana like ʻole a hoʻohālikelike ʻia ma waena o nā hui pilikia (ʻo ia hoʻi nā wahi pilikia haʻahaʻa, waena a me ke kiʻekiʻe). Ma kēlā me kēia pōʻai IRS, ua koho maʻamau ʻia he 12 mau ʻohana (4 mau ʻohana ma kēlā me kēia pae ʻekolu o nā wahi pilikia; mālama ʻia nā hōʻiliʻili pō i kēlā me kēia 2, 4, a me 12 mau pule ma hope o ka IRS) e hōʻiliʻili i nā makika e hoʻāʻo i ka palapala ʻāina pilikia piha. Ua hoʻohana ʻia nā ʻikepili ʻohana like (ʻo ia hoʻi ʻo HT, VSI, IRSS a me ka nui o nā makika awelika) e hoʻāʻo i ke kumu hoʻohālike regression hope loa. Ua hana ʻia kahi loiloi pilina maʻalahi ma waena o nā nānā ʻana ma ke kahua a me ka nui o nā makika ʻohana i wānana ʻia e ke kumu hoʻohālike.
Ua helu ʻia nā helu wehewehe e like me ka awelika, ka palena iki, ka palena kiʻekiʻe, 95% mau waena hilinaʻi (CI) a me nā pakeneka e hōʻuluʻulu i ka ʻikepili e pili ana i ka entomological a me ka IRS. ʻO ka awelika o ka helu/density a me ka make ʻana o nā ʻūhini kālā (nā koena o nā mea pepehi pepeke) me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā hoʻokolohua parametric [nā laʻana paired t-test (no ka ʻikepili i hoʻolaha maʻamau ʻia)] a me nā hoʻokolohua non-parametric (Wilcoxon signed rank) e hoʻohālikelike i ka pono ma waena o nā ʻano ʻili ma nā hale (iee, BUU vs. CPLC, BUU vs. PMP, a me CPLC vs. PMP) hoʻokolohua no ka ʻikepili i hoʻolaha ʻole ʻia). Ua hana ʻia nā loiloi āpau me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka polokalamu SPSS v.20 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
Ua helu ʻia ka uhi ʻana o nā ʻohana ma nā kauhale komo i ka wā o nā puni IRS DDT a me SP. He 205 mau ʻohana i loaʻa i ka IRS i kēlā me kēia puni, me 179 mau ʻohana (87.3%) i ka puni DDT a me 194 mau ʻohana (94.6%) i ka puni SP no ka kaohi ʻana i ka vector VL. ʻOi aku ka nui o ka hapa o nā ʻohana i mālama piha ʻia me nā pesticides i ka wā SP-IRS (86.3%) ma mua o ka wā DDT-IRS (52.7%). ʻO ka nui o nā ʻohana i koho ʻole i ka IRS i ka wā DDT he 26 (12.7%) a ʻo ka nui o nā ʻohana i koho ʻole i ka IRS i ka wā SP he 11 (5.4%). I ka wā o nā puni DDT a me SP, ʻo ka nui o nā ʻohana i mālama hapa ʻia i hoʻopaʻa inoa ʻia he 71 (34.6% o ka huina o nā ʻohana i mālama ʻia) a me 17 mau ʻohana (8.3% o ka huina o nā ʻohana i mālama ʻia), kēlā me kēia.
Wahi a nā alakaʻi kūʻē i nā pesticide a ka WHO, ua maʻalahi loa ka heluna ʻōpae kālā ma kahi i komo ai i ka alpha-cypermethrin (0.05%) ʻoiai ʻo ka awelika o ka make i hōʻike ʻia i ka wā o ka hoʻokolokolo (24 mau hola) he 100%. ʻO ka helu knockdown i ʻike ʻia he 85.9% (95% CI: 81.1–90.6%). No DDT, ʻo ka helu knockdown ma 24 mau hola he 22.8% (95% CI: 11.5–34.1%), a ʻo ka awelika o ka make ʻana o ka hoʻāʻo uila he 49.1% (95% CI: 41.9–56.3%). Ua hōʻike nā hopena ua hoʻomohala nā silverfoots i ke kūʻē piha i ka DDT ma kahi i komo ai.
Ma ka papa ʻaina, hōʻuluʻulu ka Papa 3 i nā hopena o ka bioanalysis o nā cones no nā ʻano ʻili like ʻole (nā manawa like ʻole ma hope o ka IRS) i mālama ʻia me DDT a me SP. Ua hōʻike kā mākou ʻikepili ma hope o 24 mau hola, ʻo nā insecticides ʻelua (BUU vs. CPLC: t(2)= – 6.42, P = 0.02; BUU vs. PMP: t(2) = 0.25, P = 0.83; CPLC vs PMP: t(2)= 1.03, P = 0.41 (no DDT-IRS a me BUU) CPLC: t(2)= − 5.86, P = 0.03 a me PMP: t(2) = 1.42, P = 0.29; IRS, CPLC a me PMP: t(2) = 3.01, P = 0.10 a me SP: t(2) = 9.70, P = 0.01; ua emi mau ka nui o ka make i ka hala ʻana o ka manawa. No SP-IRS: 2 pule ma hope o ka pīpī ʻana no nā ʻano pā āpau (ʻo ia hoʻi 95.6% holoʻokoʻa) a 4 mau pule ma hope o ka pīpī ʻana no nā paia CPLC wale nō (ʻo ia hoʻi 82.5). I loko o ka hui DDT, ua emi mau ka make ma lalo o 70% no nā ʻano paia āpau i nā manawa āpau ma hope o ka bioassay IRS. ʻO ka awelika o ka make hoʻokolohua no DDT a me SP ma hope o 12 mau pule o ka pīpī ʻana he 25.1% a me 63.2%, kēlā me kēia. ʻekolu mau ʻano ʻili, ʻo ka awelika kiʻekiʻe loa o ka make me DDT he 61.1% (no PMP 2 mau pule ma hope o IRS), 36.9% (no CPLC 4 mau pule ma hope o IRS), a me 28.9% (no CPLC 4 mau pule ma hope o ka IRS). ʻO ka liʻiliʻi loa he 55% (no BUU, 2 mau pule ma hope o IRS), 32.5% (no PMP, 4 mau pule ma hope o IRS) a me 20% (no PMP, 4 mau pule ma hope o IRS); US IRS). No SP, ʻo ka awelika kiʻekiʻe loa o ka make ʻana no nā ʻano ʻili āpau he 97.2% (no CPLC, 2 pule ma hope o IRS), 82.5% (no CPLC, 4 pule ma hope o IRS), a me 67.5% (no CPLC, 4 pule ma hope o IRS). 12 pule ma hope o IRS). US IRS). pule ma hope o IRS); ʻo ka haʻahaʻa loa he 94.4% (no BUU, 2 pule ma hope o IRS), 75% (no PMP, 4 pule ma hope o IRS), a me 58.3% (no PMP, 12 pule ma hope o IRS). No nā insecticides ʻelua, ua ʻokoʻa ka make ma nā ʻili i mālama ʻia me PMP i nā manawa ma mua o nā ʻili i mālama ʻia me CPLC a me BUU.
Hōʻuluʻulu ka Papa 4 i nā hopena hana komo (ʻo ia hoʻi, nā loli ma hope o ka IRS i ka nui o nā makika) o nā pōʻai IRS DDT- a me SP (Faila hou 1: Kiʻi S1). No DDT-IRS, ʻo ka pakeneka o ka emi ʻana o nā beetles silverlegged ma hope o ka manawa IRS he 34.1% (ma 2 pule), 25.9% (ma 4 pule), a me 14.1% (ma 12 pule). No SP-IRS, ʻo nā helu hōʻemi he 90.5% (ma 2 pule), 66.7% (ma 4 pule), a me 55.6% (ma 12 pule). ʻO ka emi nui loa o ka nui o nā ʻōpae kālā ma nā hale kiaʻi i ka wā hōʻike DDT a me SP IRS he 2.8% (ma 2 pule) a me 49.1% (ma 2 pule), kēlā me kēia. I ka wā SP-IRS, ua like ka emi ʻana (ma mua a ma hope) o nā pheasant ʻōpū keʻokeʻo i nā ʻohana pīpī (t(2)= – 9.09, P < 0.001) a me nā ʻohana kiaʻi (t(2) = – 1.29, P = 0.33). ʻOi aku ke kiʻekiʻe ma mua o ka DDT-IRS ma nā manawa 3 a pau ma hope o ka IRS. No nā insecticides ʻelua, ua piʻi ka nui o nā ʻūhini kālā ma nā ʻohana kiaʻi 12 pule ma hope o ka IRS (ʻo ia hoʻi, 3.6% a me 9.9% no SP a me DDT, kēlā me kēia). I ka wā o ka SP a me DDT ma hope o nā hālāwai IRS, ua hōʻiliʻili ʻia he 112 a me 161 mau ʻōpae kālā mai nā mahiʻai kiaʻi.
ʻAʻohe ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi i ka nui o ka ʻōpae kālā i ʻike ʻia ma waena o nā hui ʻohana (ʻo ia hoʻi ka pīpī vs sentinel: t(2)= – 3.47, P = 0.07; pīpī vs kaohi: t(2) = – 2.03, P = 0.18; kiaʻi vs. kaohi: i nā pule IRS ma hope o DDT, t(2) = − 0.59, P = 0.62). I ka hoʻohālikelike ʻana, ua ʻike ʻia nā ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi i ka nui o ka ʻōpae kālā ma waena o ka hui pīpī a me ka hui kaohi (t(2) = – 11.28, P = 0.01) a ma waena o ka hui pīpī a me ka hui kaohi (t(2) = – 4, 42, P = 0.05). IRS i kekahi mau pule ma hope o SP. No SP-IRS, ʻaʻohe ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi i ʻike ʻia ma waena o nā ʻohana kiaʻi a me ka kaohi (t(2)= -0.48, P = 0.68). Hōʻike ka Kiʻi 2 i ka awelika o ka nui o nā pheasant ʻōpū kālā i ʻike ʻia ma nā mahiʻai i mālama piha ʻia a hapa ʻia me nā huila IRS. ʻAʻohe ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi i ka nui o nā pheasant i mālama piha ʻia ma waena o nā ʻohana i mālama piha ʻia a hapa ʻia (awelika 7.3 a me 2.7 no kēlā me kēia pahele/pō). DDT-IRS a me SP-IRS, kēlā me kēia), a ua pīpī ʻia kekahi mau ʻohana me nā insecticides ʻelua (awelika 7.5 a me 4.4 i kēlā me kēia pō no DDT-IRS a me SP-IRS, kēlā me kēia) (t(2) ≤ 1.0, P > 0.2). Eia nō naʻe, ʻokoʻa nui ka nui o nā ʻōpae kālā ma nā mahiʻai i pīpī piha ʻia a hapa ʻia ma waena o nā pōʻai SP a me DDT IRS (t(2) ≥ 4.54, P ≤ 0.05).
ʻO ka awelika o ka nui o nā ʻuku pilau ʻēheu kālā i manaʻo ʻia ma nā ʻohana i mālama piha ʻia a me ka hapa ʻia ma ke kauhale ʻo Mahanar, Lavapur, i loko o nā pule 2 ma mua o ka IRS a me 2, 4 a me 12 mau pule ma hope o nā puni IRS, DDT a me SP.
Ua hoʻomohala ʻia kahi palapala ʻāina pilikia ākea piha (kauhale ʻo Lavapur Mahanar; ʻāpana holoʻokoʻa: 26,723 km2) e ʻike i nā wahi pilikia ākea haʻahaʻa, waena a kiʻekiʻe e nānā i ka puka ʻana a me ka hoʻi hou ʻana o ka ʻōpae kālā ma mua a me kekahi mau pule ma hope o ka hoʻokō ʻana o ka IRS (Nā Kiʻi 3, 4). . . ʻO ka helu pilikia kiʻekiʻe loa no nā ʻohana i ka wā o ka hana ʻana o ka palapala ʻāina pilikia ākea ua helu ʻia he "12" (ʻo ia hoʻi, "8" no nā palapala ʻāina pilikia e pili ana iā HT a me "4" no nā palapala ʻāina pilikia e pili ana iā VSI a me IRSS). ʻO ka helu pilikia liʻiliʻi loa i helu ʻia he "ʻole" a i ʻole "ʻaʻohe pilikia" koe wale nō nā palapala ʻāina DDT-VSI a me IRSS nona ka helu liʻiliʻi o 1. Ua hōʻike ka palapala ʻāina pilikia e pili ana iā HT he wahi nui kahi (ʻo ia hoʻi 19,994.3 km2; 74.8%) o ke kauhale ʻo Lavapur Mahanar he wahi pilikia kiʻekiʻe kahi e hālāwai ai nā kamaʻāina a puka hou mai nā makika. ʻOkoʻa ka uhi ʻana o ka wahi ma waena o nā wahi kiʻekiʻe (DDT 20.2%; SP 4.9%), waena (DDT 22.3%; SP 4.6%) a me nā wahi haʻahaʻa/ʻaʻohe pilikia (DDT 57.5%; SP 90.5)%) (t (2) = 12.7, P < 0.05) ma waena o nā kiʻikuhi pilikia o DDT a me SP-IS a me IRSS (Kiʻi 3, 4). Ua hōʻike ka palapala ʻāina pilikia hui hope loa i hoʻomohala ʻia he ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o nā hiki palekana o SP-IRS ma mua o DDT-IRS ma nā pae āpau o nā wahi pilikia HT. Ua hoʻemi ʻia ka wahi pilikia kiʻekiʻe no HT i lalo o 7% (1837.3 km2) ma hope o SP-IRS a ʻo ka hapa nui o ka wahi (ʻo ia hoʻi 53.6%) ua lilo i wahi pilikia haʻahaʻa. I ka wā o ka DDT-IRS, ʻo ka pakeneka o nā wahi pilikia kiʻekiʻe a me ka haʻahaʻa i loiloi ʻia e ka palapala ʻāina pilikia i hui pū ʻia he 35.5% (9498.1 km2) a me 16.2% (4342.4 km2), kēlā me kēia. Ua hoʻolālā ʻia a hōʻike ʻia nā nui o nā lele one i ana ʻia i nā ʻohana i mālama ʻia a me nā ʻohana kiaʻi ma mua a me kekahi mau pule ma hope o ka hoʻokō ʻana o ka IRS ma kahi palapala ʻāina pilikia i hui pū ʻia no kēlā me kēia puni o ka IRS (ʻo ia hoʻi, DDT a me SP) (Kiʻi 3, 4). He ʻaelike maikaʻi ma waena o nā helu pilikia o ka ʻohana a me ka awelika o ka nui o nā ʻōpae kālā i hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma mua a ma hope o ka IRS (Kiʻi 5). ʻO nā waiwai R2 (P < 0.05) o ka loiloi kūlike i helu ʻia mai nā puni ʻelua o ka IRS: 0.78 2 pule ma mua o DDT, 0.81 2 pule ma hope o DDT, 0.78 4 pule ma hope o DDT, 0.83 ma hope o DDT- DDT 12 pule, ʻO ka huina o DDT ma hope o SP he 0.85, 0.82 2 pule ma mua o SP, 0.38 2 pule ma hope o SP, 0.56 4 pule ma hope o SP, 0.81 12 pule ma hope o SP a me 0.79 2 pule ma hope o SP holoʻokoʻa (Faila hou 1: Papa S3). Ua hōʻike nā hopena ua hoʻonui ʻia ka hopena o ke komo ʻana o SP-IRS ma nā HT āpau i nā pule 4 ma hope o ka IRS. ʻAʻole i kūpono ʻo DDT-IRS no nā HT āpau i nā manawa āpau ma hope o ka hoʻokō ʻana o IRS. Ua hōʻuluʻulu ʻia nā hopena o ka loiloi kahua o ka ʻāpana palapala ʻāina pilikia i hoʻohui ʻia ma ka Papa 5. No nā pōʻai IRS, ʻo ka awelika o ka nui o ka ʻōpae ʻōpū kālā a me ka pakeneka o ka nui o ka nui ma nā wahi pilikia kiʻekiʻe (ʻo ia hoʻi, >55%) ua ʻoi aku ke kiʻekiʻe ma mua o nā wahi pilikia haʻahaʻa a me waena ma nā manawa āpau ma hope o ka IRS. Ua palapala ʻia a ʻike ʻia nā wahi o nā ʻohana entomological (ʻo ia hoʻi nā mea i koho ʻia no ka hōʻiliʻili makika) ma ka faila Hou 1: Kiʻi S2.
ʻEkolu ʻano palapala ʻāina pilikia spatial e pili ana i ka GIS (ʻo ia hoʻi ʻo HT, IS a me IRSS a me ka hui pū ʻana o HT, IS a me IRSS) e ʻike i nā wahi pilikia o nā pepeke pilau ma mua a ma hope o ka DDT-IRS ma ke kauhale ʻo Mahnar, Lavapur, ʻāpana ʻo Vaishali (Bihar)
ʻEkolu ʻano palapala ʻāina pilikia wahi i hoʻokumu ʻia ma GIS (ʻo ia hoʻi ʻo HT, IS a me IRSS a me ka hui pū ʻana o HT, IS a me IRSS) e ʻike i nā wahi pilikia o ka ʻōpae ʻōniʻoniʻo kala (hoʻohālikelike ʻia me Kharbang)
Ua helu ʻia ka hopena o DDT-(a, c, e, g, i) a me SP-IRS (b, d, f, h, j) ma nā pae like ʻole o nā hui pilikia ʻano ʻohana ma ka helu ʻana i ka "R2" ma waena o nā pilikia o ka ʻohana. Ka helu ʻana o nā hōʻailona ʻohana a me ka awelika o ka nui o P. argentipes 2 mau pule ma mua o ka hoʻokō ʻana o ka IRS a me 2, 4 a me 12 mau pule ma hope o ka hoʻokō ʻana o ka IRS ma ke kauhale ʻo Lavapur Mahnar, ka ʻāpana ʻo Vaishali, Bihar.
Hōʻuluʻulu ka Papa 6 i nā hopena o ka loiloi univariate o nā mea pilikia āpau e pili ana i ka nui o ka flake. Ua ʻike ʻia nā mea pilikia āpau (n = 6) e pili nui ana me ka nui o nā makika o ka home. Ua ʻike ʻia ʻo ka pae koʻikoʻi o nā loli pili āpau i hana i nā waiwai P ma lalo o 0.15. No laila, ua mālama ʻia nā loli wehewehe āpau no ka loiloi regression maha. Ua hana ʻia ka hui kūpono loa o ke kumu hoʻohālike hope loa ma muli o ʻelima mau mea pilikia: TF, TW, DS, ISV, a me IRSS. Hōʻike ka Papa 7 i nā kikoʻī o nā palena i koho ʻia ma ke kumu hoʻohālike hope loa, a me nā lakio odds i hoʻoponopono ʻia, 95% mau waena hilinaʻi (CI), a me nā waiwai P. He mea koʻikoʻi loa ke kumu hoʻohālike hope loa, me ka waiwai R2 o 0.89 (F(5)=27 .9, P<0.001).
Ua kāpae ʻia ʻo TR mai ke kumu hoʻohālike hope loa no ka mea ʻo ia ka mea liʻiliʻi loa (P = 0.46) me nā loli wehewehe ʻē aʻe. Ua hoʻohana ʻia ke kumu hoʻohālike i hoʻomohala ʻia e wānana i ka nui o nā lele one ma muli o ka ʻikepili mai 12 mau ʻohana like ʻole. Ua hōʻike nā hopena hōʻoia i kahi pilina ikaika ma waena o ka nui o nā makika i ʻike ʻia ma ke kula a me ka nui o nā makika i wānana ʻia e ke kumu hoʻohālike (r = 0.91, P < 0.001).
ʻO ka pahuhopu ka hoʻopau ʻana iā VL mai nā mokuʻāina endemic o India ma 2020 [10]. Mai ka makahiki 2012, ua holomua nui ʻo India i ka hōʻemi ʻana i ka hanana a me ka make ʻana o VL [10]. ʻO ka hoʻololi ʻana mai DDT a i SP i ka makahiki 2015 he hoʻololi nui ia i ka mōʻaukala o IRS ma Bihar, India [38]. No ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i ka pilikia spatial o VL a me ka nui o kāna mau vectors, ua hana ʻia kekahi mau haʻawina macro-level. Eia naʻe, ʻoiai ua loaʻa i ka hoʻolaha spatial o ka laha VL ka nānā nui ʻana ma ka ʻāina holoʻokoʻa, ua hana ʻia kahi noiʻi liʻiliʻi ma ka pae micro. Eia kekahi, ma ka pae micro, ʻaʻole kūlike ka ʻikepili a ʻoi aku ka paʻakikī o ka kālailai a me ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana. I ko mākou ʻike maikaʻi loa, ʻo kēia haʻawina ka hōʻike mua e loiloi i ka pono koena a me ka hopena hana o IRS me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā insecticides DDT a me SP ma waena o nā HT ma lalo o ka National VL Vector Control Program ma Bihar (India). ʻO kēia nō hoʻi ka hoʻāʻo mua e hoʻomohala i kahi palapala ʻāina pilikia spatial a me ke kumu hoʻohālike loiloi density mosquito e hōʻike i ka hoʻolaha spatiotemporal o nā mosquito ma ka microscale ma lalo o nā kūlana hana IRS.
Ua hōʻike kā mākou mau hopena ua kiʻekiʻe ka hoʻohana ʻana o ka ʻohana i ka SP-IRS ma nā ʻohana āpau a ua hana piha ʻia ka hapa nui o nā ʻohana. Ua hōʻike nā hopena bioassay ua ʻike nui ʻia nā lele one kālā ma ke kauhale noiʻi i ka beta-cypermethrin akā haʻahaʻa loa i ka DDT. ʻO ka awelika o ka make ʻana o ka ʻōpae kālā mai DDT ma lalo o 50%, e hōʻike ana i kahi kiʻekiʻe o ke kūʻē ʻana i ka DDT. He kūlike kēia me nā hopena o nā haʻawina mua i hana ʻia i nā manawa like ʻole ma nā kauhale like ʻole o nā mokuʻāina VL-endemic o India, me Bihar [8,9,39,40]. Ma waho aʻe o ka ʻike pesticide, ʻo ka hopena koena o nā pesticides a me nā hopena o ke komo ʻana he ʻike koʻikoʻi nō hoʻi. He mea nui ka lōʻihi o nā hopena koena no ke kaʻina hana papahana. Hoʻoholo ia i nā manawa ma waena o nā pōʻai o IRS i mea e palekana ai ka heluna kanaka a hiki i ka pīpī aʻe. Ua hōʻike nā hopena bioassay cone i nā ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi i ka make ma waena o nā ʻano ʻili o ka paia i nā manawa like ʻole ma hope o ka IRS. ʻO ka make ma nā ʻili i mālama ʻia e DDT ma lalo mau o ka pae kūpono o WHO (ʻo ia hoʻi, ≥80%), ʻoiai ma nā paia i mālama ʻia e SP, ua noho maikaʻi ka make a hiki i ka pule ʻehā ma hope o ka IRS; Mai kēia mau hopena, ua maopopo ʻoiai ʻo ka ʻōpae silverleg i loaʻa ma kahi o ke aʻo ʻana he maʻalahi loa ia i ka SP, ʻokoʻa ka hopena o ke koena o ka SP ma muli o ka HT. E like me DDT, ʻaʻole hoʻi i hoʻokō ka SP i ka lōʻihi o ka hopena i kuhikuhi ʻia ma nā alakaʻi WHO [41, 42]. Hiki paha kēia hemahema ma muli o ka hoʻokō maikaʻi ʻole o ka IRS (ʻo ia hoʻi ka neʻe ʻana i ka pamu ma ka wikiwiki kūpono, ka mamao mai ka paia, ka nui o ka hoʻokuʻu ʻana a me ka nui o nā kulu wai a me ko lākou waiho ʻana ma ka paia), a me ka hoʻohana naʻaupō ʻana i nā pesticides (ʻo ia hoʻi ka hoʻomākaukau ʻana i ka hopena) [11,28,43]. Eia naʻe, ʻoiai ua mālama ʻia kēia haʻawina ma lalo o ka nānā pono ʻana a me ka kaohi ʻana, ʻo kekahi kumu no ka hoʻokō ʻole ʻana i ka lā palena pau i ʻōlelo ʻia e ka World Health Organization ʻo ia ka maikaʻi o ka SP (ʻo ia hoʻi, ka pakeneka o ka mea hana a i ʻole "AI") e hana ana i ka QC.
Ma waena o nā ʻano ʻili ʻekolu i hoʻohana ʻia e loiloi i ke kūpaʻa o ka pesticide, ua ʻike ʻia nā ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi o ka make ma waena o BUU a me CPLC no nā pesticides ʻelua. ʻO kekahi ʻike hou, ua hōʻike ʻo CPLC i ka hana koena maikaʻi ma aneane nā manawa āpau ma hope o ka pīpī ʻana a ukali ʻia e nā ʻili BUU a me PMP. Eia nō naʻe, ʻelua pule ma hope o ka IRS, ua hoʻopaʻa ʻo PMP i nā helu make kiʻekiʻe loa a me ka lua o ka kiʻekiʻe loa mai DDT a me SP, kēlā me kēia. Hōʻike kēia hopena ʻaʻole e mau ka pesticide i waiho ʻia ma luna o ka ʻili o ka PMP no ka manawa lōʻihi. ʻO kēia ʻokoʻa i ka pono o nā koena pesticide ma waena o nā ʻano pā ma muli paha o nā kumu like ʻole, e like me ke ʻano o nā kemika pā (hoʻonui ʻia ka pH e hoʻopau koke ai kekahi mau pesticides), ka nui o ka absorption (ʻoi aku ke kiʻekiʻe ma nā pā lepo), ka loaʻa ʻana o ka bacteria decomposition a me ka nui o ka degradation o nā mea pā, a me ka mahana a me ka haʻahaʻa [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49]. Kākoʻo kā mākou mau hopena i kekahi mau haʻawina ʻē aʻe e pili ana i ka pono koena o nā ʻili i mālama ʻia me ka insecticide e kūʻē i nā mea hoʻoili maʻi like ʻole [45, 46, 50, 51].
Ua hōʻike ʻia nā kuhi o ka hōʻemi ʻana o nā makika i nā ʻohana i mālama ʻia ua ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka SP-IRS ma mua o ka DDT-IRS i ka kaohi ʻana i nā makika i nā manawa āpau ma hope o ka IRS (P < 0.001). No nā pōʻai SP-IRS a me DDT-IRS, ʻo ka nui o ka emi ʻana no nā ʻohana i mālama ʻia mai 2 a 12 mau pule he 55.6-90.5% a me 14.1-34.1%, kēlā me kēia. Ua hōʻike pū kēia mau hopena ua ʻike ʻia nā hopena koʻikoʻi ma ka nui o P. argentipes i nā ʻohana kiaʻi i loko o 4 mau pule o ka hoʻokō ʻana o ka IRS; ua piʻi argentipes i nā pōʻai ʻelua o ka IRS 12 mau pule ma hope o ka IRS; Eia naʻe, ʻaʻohe ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi i ka helu o nā makika i nā ʻohana kiaʻi ma waena o nā pōʻai ʻelua o ka IRS (P = 0.33). ʻO nā hopena mai nā loiloi helu o ka nui o ka ʻōpae kālā ma waena o nā hui ʻohana i kēlā me kēia pōʻai ʻaʻole i hōʻike i nā ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi i ka DDT ma waena o nā hui ʻohana ʻehā (ʻo ia hoʻi, i pīpī ʻia vs. kiaʻi; i pīpī ʻia vs. kaohi; kiaʻi vs. kaohi; piha vs. hapa). ). ʻElua mau hui ʻohana IRS a me SP-IRS (ʻo ia hoʻi, kiaʻi vs. kaohi a me ka piha vs. hapa). Eia nō naʻe, ua ʻike ʻia nā ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi i ka nui o ka ʻōpae kālā ma waena o nā pōʻai DDT a me SP-IRS ma nā mahiʻai i pīpī hapa ʻia a piha. ʻO kēia ʻike, i hui pū ʻia me ka ʻoiaʻiʻo ua helu ʻia nā hopena hana i nā manawa he nui ma hope o ka IRS, hōʻike ia he pono ka SP no ka kaohi ʻana i nā makika ma nā hale i mālama hapa ʻia a piha paha, akā ʻaʻole i mālama ʻia. Eia nō naʻe, ʻoiai ʻaʻohe ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi i ka helu o nā makika ma nā hale kiaʻi ma waena o nā pōʻai DDT-IRS a me SP IRS, ʻoi aku ka haʻahaʻa o ka awelika o nā makika i hōʻiliʻili ʻia i ka wā o ka pōʻai DDT-IRS i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me ka pōʻai SP-IRS. .ʻOi aku ka nui ma mua o ka nui. Hōʻike kēia hopena e hiki i ka insecticide vector-sensitive me ka uhi IRS kiʻekiʻe loa i waena o ka heluna kanaka o ka ʻohana ke loaʻa ka hopena heluna kanaka i ka kaohi ʻana i nā makika ma nā hale i pīpī ʻole ʻia. Wahi a nā hopena, ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka hopena pale ʻana o SP i nā nahu makika ma mua o DDT i nā lā mua ma hope o ka IRS. Eia kekahi, no ka hui SP ka alpha-cypermethrin, loaʻa ka huhū pili a me ka ʻawahia pololei i nā makika a kūpono no ka IRS [51, 52]. ʻO kēia paha kekahi o nā kumu nui i loaʻa ai ka hopena liʻiliʻi o ka alpha-cypermethrin i nā wahi i waho. Ua ʻike ʻia kekahi noiʻi ʻē aʻe [52] ʻoiai ua hōʻike ʻo alpha-cypermethrin i nā pane e kū nei a me nā helu knockdown kiʻekiʻe i nā hoʻāʻo hoʻokolohua a me nā hale liʻiliʻi, ʻaʻole i hana ka hui i kahi pane repellent i nā makika ma lalo o nā kūlana hoʻokolohua i kāohi ʻia. cabin. pūnaewele.
Ma kēia haʻawina, ua hoʻomohala ʻia ʻekolu ʻano palapala ʻāina pilikia spatial; Ua loiloi ʻia nā kuhi pilikia spatial ma ka pae ʻohana a me ka pae ʻāina ma o nā nānā ʻana i ke kahua o ka nui o ka ʻōpae silverleg. Ua hōʻike ka loiloi o nā wahi pilikia e pili ana i ka HT ʻo ka hapa nui o nā wahi kauhale (>78%) o Lavapur-Mahanara aia ma ke kiʻekiʻe loa o ka pilikia o ka hanana one a me ka puka hou ʻana. ʻO kēia paha ke kumu nui i kaulana ai ʻo Rawalpur Mahanar VL. ʻO ka ISV holoʻokoʻa a me ka IRSS, a me ka palapala ʻāina pilikia hope loa, ua ʻike ʻia e hana i kahi pakeneka haʻahaʻa o nā wahi ma lalo o nā wahi pilikia kiʻekiʻe i ka wā o ka pōʻai SP-IRS (akā ʻaʻole ka pōʻai DDT-IRS). Ma hope o ka SP-IRS, ua hoʻololi ʻia nā wahi nui o nā wahi pilikia kiʻekiʻe a me ka waena e pili ana i ka GT i nā wahi pilikia haʻahaʻa (ʻo ia hoʻi 60.5%; nā kuhi palapala ʻāina pilikia i hui pū ʻia), ʻaneʻane ʻehā manawa haʻahaʻa (16.2%) ma mua o DDT. - Aia ke kūlana ma ka pakuhi pilikia waihona IRS ma luna. Hōʻike kēia hopena ʻo IRS ke koho kūpono no ka kaohi ʻana i nā makika, akā ʻo ke kiʻekiʻe o ka pale ʻana e pili ana i ka maikaʻi o ka insecticide, ka ʻike (i ka vector target), ka ʻae ʻia (i ka manawa o ka IRS) a me kāna noi;
Ua hōʻike nā hopena loiloi pilikia o ka ʻohana i ka ʻaelike maikaʻi (P < 0.05) ma waena o nā kuhi pilikia a me ka nui o ka ʻōpae silverleg i hōʻiliʻili ʻia mai nā ʻohana like ʻole. Hōʻike kēia he kūpono nā palena pilikia o ka ʻohana i ʻike ʻia a me kā lākou mau helu pilikia mahele no ka kuhi ʻana i ka nui o ka ʻōpae silver. ʻO ka waiwai R2 o ka loiloi ʻaelike DDT ma hope o ka IRS he ≥ 0.78, ʻo ia hoʻi he like a ʻoi aku paha ma mua o ka waiwai ma mua o ka IRS (ʻo ia hoʻi, 0.78). Ua hōʻike nā hopena ua kūpono ka DDT-IRS ma nā wahi pilikia HT āpau (ʻo ia hoʻi, kiʻekiʻe, waena, a haʻahaʻa). No ka pōʻai SP-IRS, ua ʻike mākou ua loli ka waiwai o R2 i nā pule ʻelua a me ka hā ma hope o ka hoʻokō ʻana o ka IRS, ua aneane like nā waiwai ʻelua pule ma mua o ka hoʻokō ʻana o ka IRS a me 12 mau pule ma hope o ka hoʻokō ʻana o ka IRS; Hōʻike kēia hopena i ka hopena koʻikoʻi o ka hōʻike ʻana o SP-IRS i nā makika, kahi i hōʻike i kahi ʻano emi me ka manawa ma hope o ka IRS. Ua hōʻike ʻia a ua kūkākūkā ʻia ka hopena o SP-IRS ma nā mokuna ma mua.
Ua hōʻike ʻia nā hopena mai kahi loiloi kahua o nā wahi pilikia o ka palapala ʻāina i hōʻuluʻulu ʻia i ka wā o ka puni IRS, ua hōʻiliʻili ʻia ka nui o nā ʻōpae kālā ma nā wahi pilikia kiʻekiʻe (ʻo ia hoʻi, >55%), a ukali ʻia e nā wahi pilikia waena a me ka haʻahaʻa. I ka hōʻuluʻulu manaʻo, ua hōʻoia ʻia ka loiloi pilikia spatial e pili ana i ka GIS he mea hana hoʻoholo kūpono no ka hōʻuluʻulu ʻana i nā papa like ʻole o ka ʻikepili spatial pākahi a i ʻole i hui pū ʻia e ʻike i nā wahi pilikia lele one. Hāʻawi ka palapala ʻāina pilikia i hoʻomohala ʻia i kahi ʻike piha o nā kūlana ma mua a ma hope o ke komo ʻana (ʻo ia hoʻi, ke ʻano o ka hale, ke kūlana IRS, a me nā hopena komo) ma ka wahi aʻo e pono ai ka hana koke a i ʻole ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana, ʻoi aku hoʻi ma ka pae micro. He kūlana kaulana loa. ʻO ka ʻoiaʻiʻo, ua hoʻohana kekahi mau haʻawina i nā mea hana GIS e palapala i ka pilikia o nā wahi hānau vector a me ka hoʻolaha spatial o nā maʻi ma ka pae macro [24, 26, 37].
Ua loiloi ʻia nā ʻano hale a me nā kumu pilikia no nā hana i hoʻokumu ʻia e ka IRS no ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā loiloi density shrimp silver. ʻOiai ʻo nā kumu ʻeono a pau (ʻo ia hoʻi, TF, TW, TR, DS, ISV, a me IRSS) ua pili nui me ka nui o ka silverleg shrimp ma nā loiloi univariate, hoʻokahi wale nō o lākou i koho ʻia ma ke kumu hoʻohālike regression maha hope loa mai loko mai o ʻelima. Hōʻike nā hopena he kūpono nā ʻano hoʻokele pio a me nā kumu hana o IRS TF, TW, DS, ISV, IRSS, etc. ma kahi noiʻi no ka nānā ʻana i ka puka ʻana mai, ka hoʻōla ʻana a me ka hana hou ʻana o ka silver shrimp. Ma ka loiloi regression maha, ʻaʻole i ʻike ʻia ʻo TR he mea nui a no laila ʻaʻole i koho ʻia ma ke kumu hoʻohālike hope loa. He mea nui loa ke kumu hoʻohālike hope loa, me nā palena i koho ʻia e wehewehe ana i ka 89% o ka density silverleg shrimp. Ua hōʻike nā hopena pololei o ka hoʻohālike i kahi pilina ikaika ma waena o nā densities silver shrimp i wānana ʻia a me ka nānā ʻia. Kākoʻo pū kā mākou mau hopena i nā haʻawina mua i kūkākūkā i nā kumu pilikia socioeconomic a me ka hale e pili ana me ka laha ʻana o VL a me ka hoʻolaha spatial o ka vector ma Bihar kuaʻāina [15, 29].
Ma kēia haʻawina, ʻaʻole mākou i loiloi i ka waiho ʻana o ka pesticide ma nā paia i pīpī ʻia a me ke ʻano (ʻo ia hoʻi) o ka pesticide i hoʻohana ʻia no ka IRS. Hiki i nā ʻokoʻa o ke ʻano a me ka nui o ka pesticide ke hoʻopilikia i ka make ʻana o nā makika a me ka pono o nā hana IRS. No laila, ʻokoʻa paha ka make i manaʻo ʻia ma waena o nā ʻano ʻili a me nā hopena hana ma waena o nā hui ʻohana mai nā hopena maoli. Ma ka noʻonoʻo ʻana i kēia mau mea, hiki ke hoʻolālā ʻia kahi haʻawina hou. ʻO ka loiloi ʻana o ka ʻāina holoʻokoʻa i ka pilikia (me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka palapala ʻāina pilikia GIS) o nā kauhale aʻo e pili ana i nā wahi ākea ma waena o nā kauhale, kahi e hoʻohuli ai i ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana o nā wahi pilikia (ʻo ia hoʻi ka ʻike ʻana i nā wahi) a hoʻonui i nā wahi pilikia like ʻole; Eia naʻe, ua mālama ʻia kēia haʻawina ma kahi pae micro, no laila he hopena liʻiliʻi wale nō ka ʻāina hakahaka i ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana o nā wahi pilikia; Eia kekahi, ʻo ka ʻike ʻana a me ka loiloi ʻana i nā wahi pilikia like ʻole i loko o ka ʻāpana holoʻokoʻa o ke kauhale hiki ke hāʻawi i kahi manawa kūpono e koho ai i nā wahi no ke kūkulu hale hou e hiki mai ana (ʻoi aku ka koho ʻana o nā wahi haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa). Ma keʻano holoʻokoʻa, hāʻawi nā hopena o kēia haʻawina i nā ʻike like ʻole i aʻo ʻole ʻia ma ka pae microscopic ma mua. ʻO ka mea nui loa, ʻo ka hōʻike ʻana o ka palapala ʻāina pilikia o ke kauhale e kōkua i ka ʻike a me ka hoʻohui ʻana i nā ʻohana ma nā wahi pilikia like ʻole, i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me nā ana ʻāina kuʻuna, he maʻalahi kēia ʻano hana, kūpono, kūpono i ke kumukūʻai a emi iki ka hana nui, e hāʻawi ana i ka ʻike i nā mea hoʻoholo.
Hōʻike kā mākou mau hopena ua hoʻomohala nā iʻa kālā maoli ma ke kauhale noiʻi i ke kūʻē ʻana (ʻo ia hoʻi, he kūpaʻa loa) i ka DDT, a ua ʻike koke ʻia ka puka ʻana o nā makika ma hope o ka IRS; ʻIke ʻia ʻo Alpha-cypermethrin ke koho kūpono no ka kaohi ʻana o ka IRS i nā vectors VL ma muli o kona make 100% a me ka maikaʻi o ka hana komo ʻana i nā silverflies, a me kona ʻae ʻia ʻana e ke kaiāulu i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me DDT-IRS. Eia nō naʻe, ua ʻike mākou ua ʻokoʻa ka make ʻana o nā makika ma nā paia i mālama ʻia e SP ma muli o ke ʻano o ka ʻili; ua ʻike ʻia ka maikaʻi ʻole o ke koena a ʻaʻole i hoʻokō ʻia ka manawa i ʻōlelo ʻia e ka WHO ma hope o ka IRS. Hāʻawi kēia haʻawina i kahi hoʻomaka maikaʻi no ke kūkākūkā ʻana, a pono i kāna mau hopena ke aʻo hou aku e ʻike i nā kumu maoli. Ua hōʻike ka pololei wānana o ke kumu hoʻohālike loiloi density lele one e hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia ka hui pū ʻana o nā ʻano hale, ka ʻike insecticide o nā vectors a me ke kūlana IRS e kuhi i nā densities lele one ma nā kauhale endemic VL ma Bihar. Hōʻike pū kā mākou haʻawina e hiki i ka hoʻohui ʻia ʻana o ka GIS-based risk mapping (macro level) ke lilo i mea hana pono no ka ʻike ʻana i nā wahi pilikia e nānā i ka puka ʻana a me ka puka hou ʻana o nā puʻu one ma mua a ma hope o nā hālāwai IRS. Eia kekahi, hāʻawi nā palapala ʻāina pilikia spatial i kahi ʻike piha o ka laulā a me ke ʻano o nā wahi pilikia ma nā pae like ʻole, ʻaʻole hiki ke aʻo ʻia ma o nā anamanaʻo kahua kuʻuna a me nā ʻano hōʻiliʻili ʻikepili maʻamau. Hiki i ka ʻike pilikia microspatial i hōʻiliʻili ʻia ma o nā palapala ʻāina GIS ke kōkua i nā kānaka ʻepekema a me nā mea noiʻi olakino lehulehu e hoʻomohala a hoʻokō i nā hoʻolālā kaohi hou (ʻo ia hoʻi ke komo ʻana hoʻokahi a i ʻole ka hoʻokele vector i hoʻohui ʻia) e hiki aku i nā hui like ʻole o nā ʻohana ma muli o ke ʻano o nā pae pilikia. Eia kekahi, kōkua ka palapala ʻāina pilikia i ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā kumuwaiwai kaohi i ka manawa kūpono a me kahi e hoʻomaikaʻi ai i ka pono o ka papahana.
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